What historical evidence supports the cultural context of Exodus 20:15? Literary Setting: The Covenant Framework Exodus 20 is the written core of the Sinai covenant. Like contemporary Hittite suzerainty treaties (14th–13th centuries BC), it opens with an historical prologue (Exodus 20:2), moves to stipulations (vv. 3-17), and later records blessings and curses (Leviticus 26; Deuteronomy 28). The eighth word (“You shall not steal”) belongs to the apodictic—or absolute—commands; it is stated without penalty because its authority rests on the character of Yahweh rather than negotiable civil damages. Chronological Placement A conservative, biblically synchronized timeline places the Exodus in 1446 BC (1 Kings 6:1; Judges 11:26). That date lies in the transition from Egypt’s late 18th to early 19th Dynasties, aligning the giving of the Decalogue c. 1446–1406 BC. Archaeological synchronization points include: • Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim (18th Dynasty turquoise mines) showing alphabetic writing available for a Hebrew text at Sinai. • The Mount Ebal altar (13th century) with early Hebrew letters referencing “YHW,” preserving covenantal worship in the initial Israelite settlement. • The Berlin Pedestal Fragment 21687 (late 15th/early 14th century) and the Merneptah Stele (c. 1208 BC) naming “Israel” in Canaan soon after the conquest timeframe. Property Crime in the Ancient Near East In every major law code preceding or contemporary with Moses, theft receives detailed treatment: • Code of Hammurabi §6-§8, §21-§25 (Babylon, c. 1754 BC): death or thirtyfold restitution for stealing temple or palace goods; tenfold for private property. • Laws of Eshnunna §18-§24 (c. 1930 BC), Middle Assyrian Law A §12-§17 (c. 1400 BC), and Hittite Law §46-§56 (c. 1500–1300 BC): varied fines, slavery, or mutilation. These parallels confirm that protection of property was assumed in the wider culture; however, Israel’s apodictic format is unique: it grounds the prohibition in the character of the covenant Lord, not in royal authority or civic utility. Egyptian Background: Real-World Cases of Theft Papyrus Anastasi V (19th Dynasty) records investigative reports on missing grain and tools. Ostraca from Deir el-Medina (New Kingdom workmen’s village, 15th–11th centuries BC) document trials for stealing food, copper chisels, and grave goods, with penalties ranging from flogging to forced labor. Brooklyn Papyrus 35.1446 lists household slaves, indicating recognized personal property. These documents situate Israelite hearers—fresh from Egypt—within a society in which theft was litigated daily. Socio-Economic Relevance to Freed Slaves Having left servitude, Israel was about to receive landed inheritances (Numbers 26:52-56; Joshua 14). Their new social order required stable boundaries: the command protects the poor’s gleanings (Exodus 22:25-27; Leviticus 19:10) as much as the wealthy’s herds (Exodus 22:1-4). Its inclusion alongside prohibitions of murder and adultery underscores that violating another’s God-given stewardship is an offense against the Giver Himself. Archaeological Echoes: Boundary Stones and Curse Formulas Mesopotamian kudurru (boundary stones, 15th–12th centuries BC) curse “the one who removes or steals this land-marker,” illustrating the gravity of property theft. Comparable maledictions appear on Hittite land grants and Moabite steles. Such artifacts illuminate the background assumption that land and goods were inviolable trusts, reinforcing the biblical prohibition. Legal Memory and Manuscript Witness The Nash Papyrus (c. 2nd century BC) and Dead Sea Scroll 4Q41 (the oldest nearly complete Hebrew Decalogue, mid-2nd century BC) preserve the command exactly as in the Masoretic Text, confirming its stability across more than a millennium of transmission. Distinctive Theological Motifs 1. Divine Ownership: “The earth is the LORD’s” (Psalm 24:1). Theft is sacrilege against God’s ultimate proprietorship. 2. Imago Dei: Because humans bear God’s image (Genesis 1:27), their labor and goods receive sacred respect. 3. Covenant Community: Unlike purely economic ANE penalties, Torah integrates restitution with reconciliation (Exodus 22:3-4; Leviticus 6:1-7), foreshadowing Christ’s atoning restoration. Continuity into the New Testament Jesus reaffirms the command (Matthew 19:18). Paul deepens it: “Let the thief no longer steal, but rather let him labor…so that he may share with the one in need” (Ephesians 4:28). The gospel not only forbids theft; it transforms takers into givers. Concluding Synthesis Archaeological finds (Sinai inscriptions, Deir el-Medina ostraca, kudurru stones), contemporaneous law codes, secure textual transmission, and socio-economic realities together corroborate the cultural milieu in which “You shall not steal” was spoken. The evidence situates the command precisely in the mid-2nd millennium BC world, yet its theological foundation—God’s ownership and human dignity—transcends culture, culminating in Christ, who fulfills the law and restores all who turn to Him. |
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