In 1 Kings 10:1-13, how can we historically verify the Queen of Sheba’s existence and journey when evidence outside the Bible is scarce or disputed?

Historical Context of Sheba

Sheba in ancient times was associated with a region rich in spices, gold, and precious stones—often believed to be in southwest Arabia (modern-day Yemen) or perhaps extending into parts of East Africa. Assyrian sources and other early documents reference the people of Saba (or Sheba) as significant traders on the Arabian Peninsula. This matches the biblical depiction of Sheba as a wealthy land (1 Kings 10:2), where exotic goods like gold and costly spices were in abundance.

Controlling important trade routes that linked Africa, Arabia, and the wider Near East, the Sabeans are described in Scripture as adept merchants. Outside the Bible, archaeological studies around ancient Marib in Yemen have revealed sophisticated irrigation systems and evidence of wealth. Although these discoveries do not provide a name that directly corresponds to the “Queen of Sheba,” they do reinforce that a powerful kingdom existed in that region, one capable of sending a delegation to the court of Solomon.

Connection with 1 Kings 10:1–13

Scripture recounts: “When the queen of Sheba heard of Solomon’s fame, which brought honor to the name of the LORD, she came to test him with difficult questions” (1 Kings 10:1). Her journey is detailed further:

• She arrived in Jerusalem with “a very large caravan—with camels bearing spices, gold in abundance, and precious stones” (1 Kings 10:2).

• She was overwhelmed by Solomon’s wisdom and the grandeur of his court (1 Kings 10:4–5).

• She professed surprise that Solomon’s reputation was even greater than what she had heard, declaring: “I did not believe these things until I came and saw with my own eyes” (1 Kings 10:7).

• She presented Solomon with “a hundred twenty talents of gold, large quantities of spices, and precious stones” (1 Kings 10:10).

These details fit what is known of Sheba’s lucrative spice trade, placing the kingdom in a unique economic position to offer such lavish gifts. Although many ancient texts do not mention this journey by name, the biblical portrayal aligns with known trade practices and the general wealth of Sheba.

References in Other Ancient Writings and Traditions

Numerous cultures preserve stories that may echo or parallel the biblical account:

• Ethiopian Tradition (Kebra Nagast): The Kebra Nagast, a 14th-century Ethiopian text, speaks of a queen (often called Makeda) who journeyed to meet King Solomon. While the Kebra Nagast is far later than the biblical record and blends legend with history, it reinforces a longstanding tradition in East Africa that a monarch traveled to Jerusalem.

• Arabian Tradition (Bilkis): Some Arabian sources and folk traditions refer to the Queen of Sheba under the name Bilkis. Although these references also emerge in later periods and contain legendary elements, they reflect recognition within the Arabian Peninsula of an influential queen linked to the biblical portrayal.

Scholars debate how closely these traditions align with the 1 Kings 10 account. However, their existence demonstrates an awareness beyond the Hebrew Scriptures that a powerful queen from the south once interacted with King Solomon or his kingdom.

Archaeological Indicators

Direct extra-biblical evidence for the personal identity of the Queen of Sheba remains elusive. Names of local rulers have turned up in various inscriptions in the Arabian Peninsula, but explicit mention of “the Queen of Sheba” has not been confirmed.

Still, archaeology offers indirect corroboration:

• Marib, the Sabean Capital: Excavations reveal a culture advanced in irrigation (the Marib dam system), pointing to a prosperous state. This prosperity adds plausibility to the biblical narrative, noting that the queen brought extraordinary wealth (1 Kings 10:10).

• Trade Goods and Caravans: Inscriptions show that incense and spices traveled from Arabian ports northward to regions like Israel and beyond. These trade routes would have made travel feasible, supporting the notion that a royal caravan journeyed to Jerusalem.

• Cultural Artifacts and Architecture: Examination of temple complexes in Yemen and surrounding areas displays an advanced level of craftsmanship consistent with a civilization capable of producing the kind of wealth described in Scripture.

While none of these archaeological remains explicitly identify the queen, their alignment with the biblical elements of rich caravans, commerce, and advanced development provides external touches of realism to the narrative.

Reliability of the Biblical Record

Even though documentary or archaeological evidence outside the Bible is sparse on the Queen of Sheba herself, the overall Scriptural testimony holds consistent with known history. Traditional critics sometimes argue these events lack corroboration, but three main considerations help address those concerns:

1. Interlocking Accounts in 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles: The narrative in 1 Kings 10:1–13 also appears in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12, reinforcing the consistency of the story in two separate historical writings.

2. Testimony of Jesus Christ: In the New Testament, Jesus refers to the “Queen of the South” who came to hear Solomon’s wisdom, stating that she would rise as a witness in judgment (Matthew 12:42). While not a secular source, it demonstrates that the account held longstanding acceptance in the Hebrew tradition and was recognized in the first century AD.

3. Scriptural Manuscript Consistency: Manuscript evidence for 1 and 2 Kings (including the Dead Sea Scrolls and later codices) remains remarkably stable. No textual variants undermine the Queen of Sheba’s visit. This consistency supports the case that the event was well-established in the biblical writings from an early date.

Possible Geographic and Cultural Scenarios

There is ongoing debate whether Sheba was exclusively in Yemen or extended to Ethiopia. Some scholars propose multiple “Shebas” spread across Arabia and Africa. If the queen led a realm that included seafaring ports on the Red Sea, she would have reliable access to Jerusalem’s inland trade routes.

Additionally, the mention of “spices and gold” (1 Kings 10:10) tracks with known products from both southwestern Arabia and the Horn of Africa. The overlapping trade zones in that region would have facilitated the famous caravan route into the Levant, making such an expedition historically plausible.

Conclusion

Although there is no smoking-gun inscription naming the Queen of Sheba outside of Scripture, multiple lines of evidence demonstrate the credibility of her existence and journey to Solomon:

• The vibrant Sabean kingdom in southwestern Arabia (and possibly extending farther) was known for wealthy monarchs and extensive trade.

• Archaeological finds—while never referring to the queen by a personal name—confirm that Sheba was wealthy and engaged in complex commerce networks entirely capable of sending a royal caravan.

• References in later Ethiopian and Arabian traditions, though partly legendary, mirror core details from 1 Kings 10.

• The biblical text, supported by reliable manuscript evidence, depicts her arrival, her generous gifts, and her astonishment at Solomon’s wisdom.

• Jesus’s testament to this “Queen of the South” (Matthew 12:42) underscores the longstanding acceptance of her historicity.

Thus, even if outside textual evidence of this particular monarch’s name remains scarce or disputed, the converging historical, cultural, and commercial contexts strongly support the reality of the Queen of Sheba’s visit, as detailed in 1 Kings 10:1–13.