What constitutes the Old Testament Canon?

Definition and Scope of the Old Testament Canon

The term “canon” refers to the recognized list of books that carry divine authority as Scripture. Within this list, each book is viewed as inspired and foundational for understanding the plan, character, and commands of the Creator. The Old Testament Canon traditionally encompasses those writings that trace back to the Hebrew Scriptures, identified as the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi’im), and the Writings (Ketuvim).

From the earliest days of ancient Israel, these books were preserved, read, and revered by the community of faith as the very words of God. While the numbering of these books varies in Jewish tradition (often counted as 24) and in modern translations (commonly 39), the same content is recognized. The commonly accepted traditional Protestant Old Testament does not include the additional texts known as the Apocrypha or Deuterocanonicals.

Historical Formation of the Old Testament Canon

The Law (often identified as the Pentateuch: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) was transmitted from the time of Moses and recognized almost immediately as divinely authoritative. Deuteronomy 31:24–26 records instructions for the Levites to place the Book of the Law beside the ark of the covenant, signifying its revered status.

Prophets such as Samuel, Nathan, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, and others wrote and proclaimed God’s word, preserving these messages over centuries. Their writings were collected and read publicly in Israel’s worship gatherings (compare 2 Kings 22:8–10). By the time of the Babylonian exile and subsequent return, these Prophetic books were accepted as part of the inspired corpus.

Criteria for Inclusion

One important consideration for including a book in the Old Testament Canon was its connection to recognized prophets or inspired leaders (e.g., Moses, Joshua, Samuel, and the major and minor prophets). Another factor was consistency with established revelation. Any text claiming divine origin had to align doctrinally with earlier Scripture, reflecting the same divine messages without contradiction (see Deuteronomy 13:1–5, regarding warnings against contradictory revelations).

There was also the matter of widespread acceptance among the community of faith. From the earliest centuries, the same books were being read, copied, and affirmed across different regions, suggesting collective agreement that these texts constituted the authoritative corpus.

Preservation and Textual Reliability

The text of the Old Testament was meticulously handed down through scribal traditions, such as those observed by the Masoretes between roughly the 6th and 10th centuries AD. Their careful copying techniques, involving counting letters and ensuring precise consistency, testify to the dedication to preserving the integrity of these writings.

Before the Masoretic Text, the Dead Sea Scrolls (dated around the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD) contain portions of almost every Old Testament book, establishing that these Scriptures were already recognized and circulated among Jewish communities. Comparisons between these scrolls and later manuscripts show remarkable consistency, reinforcing confidence in the established canon.

Witness of the Dead Sea Scrolls

Discovered in the mid-20th century near Qumran, the Dead Sea Scrolls included significant fragments and near-complete manuscripts of Old Testament books, such as Isaiah, Psalms, and Deuteronomy. These findings demonstrate that the canonical texts cherished by the Jewish community centuries before and after the time of Christ align strongly with the modern Old Testament.

The scrolls also contained other documents that were not included in Judaism’s recognized canon. Their inclusion in the Qumran collection shows that certain writings were read by various sects for study or spiritual edification. However, their acceptance did not necessarily rise to the level of considering them Scripture.

The Threefold Division: Law, Prophets, and Writings

A critical theological and historical indicator of which books composed the Old Testament Canon emerges from references to the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. Jesus spoke of these three divisions explicitly. In Luke 24:44, He said, “These are My words that I spoke to you while I was still with you: Everything must be fulfilled that is written about Me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms.”

The reference to the “Psalms” was often a shorthand for the broader section of Writings. By the New Testament era, this recognized threefold division was already established, confirming the acceptance of the body of text comparable to our modern Old Testament.

Importance of Josephus’ Testimony

Flavius Josephus, a first-century historian, provided extra-biblical confirmation of the established Hebrew Scriptures. In Against Apion (Book I, §8), Josephus enumerated 22 recognized books (a count that merges certain books we separate today, such as Kings or Chronicles). He emphasized that these works had been regarded as canonical through centuries and had widespread recognition among the Jewish people.

Josephus’ testimony bolsters the claim that the core content of today’s Old Testament had been fixed and treated as authoritative, even before the destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70.

Addressing the Apocrypha (Deuterocanonicals)

In some traditions, additional writings—often called the Apocrypha—are included in the Old Testament. These include books like Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, and others. While they have a historical and religious context, they did not enjoy the same acceptance among early Hebrew manuscripts, nor were they recognized with the same binding authority by all Jewish communities.

The Dead Sea Scrolls reveal that while these texts may have been read, they were not classed on the same level as the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. Early Christian communities in places such as Alexandria included them in Greek compilations (the Septuagint), but these did not achieve universal acknowledgment as divinely inspired canon in the Hebrew tradition.

Scriptural Unity and Inspiration

All recognized books of the Old Testament share a thematic unity, pointing to God’s redemptive plan, human responsibility, and the foreshadowing of a promised Messiah. This unity is reflected in passages like 2 Timothy 3:16, which states, “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for instruction, for conviction, for correction, and for training in righteousness.” While the focus of 2 Timothy is primarily the existing sacred writings available to Timothy—namely the Old Testament—this passage highlights the conviction that these writings bear unique divine inspiration.

Additionally, the historical books (Joshua through Esther) demonstrate continuity and consistent theological reflection, showing the covenant relationship between God and His people. The wisdom literature (Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon) is widely revered for its poetic and philosophical insights into God’s nature, human struggles, and the pursuit of divine wisdom.

Canonical Consensus by the Time of Christ

Multiple lines of evidence show that by the time Jesus walked the earth, the canon of Scripture His audience referenced was essentially the same Old Testament recognized today. As noted, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus’ writings, and the threefold mention in Luke 24:44, all converge to uphold those foundational books already commanding widespread authority.

Later councils or discussions about the Old Testament did not create the canon but rather acknowledged and formally recognized what had already been accepted through community practice and tradition. The so-called “Council of Jamnia” around AD 90 is sometimes referenced as finalizing the Hebrew Bible, but modern scholarship suggests it mainly formalized what was already established and did not introduce new books.

Archaeological and Historical Corroboration

Archaeological discoveries consistently show that the people, places, and events recorded in the Old Testament have historical grounding. Inscriptions such as the Tel Dan Stele, which references the “House of David,” and many details gleaned from excavations in ancient cities like Hazor and Lachish, confirm various aspects of Old Testament narratives.

These findings do not dictate which books are in the canon, but they lend credibility to the accuracy of the texts that were preserved. The consistent authenticity of details underscores why these books have been viewed as historically reliable and divinely given.

Use of the Septuagint

The Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, known as the Septuagint (LXX), emerged around the 3rd century BC and served Greek-speaking Jewish communities and later many early Christian believers. While it sometimes included additional writings, the core recognized books mirrored the same ones found in the Hebrew Bible.

Quotations in the New Testament often derive from the Septuagint’s phrasing, especially where the Greek-speaking world already relied on that version. Yet these quotations correspond to the same canonical Old Testament writings, reinforcing their acceptance.

Conclusion and Significance

The Old Testament Canon is comprised of the authoritative writings handed down in Jewish tradition, recognized by Jesus and His followers, and confirmed through early historical testimonies, manuscript evidence, and widespread acceptance. Though numbered differently depending on tradition, the content remains consistent from Genesis to Malachi, forming a cohesive record of creation, covenant, history, wisdom, and prophecy.

For generations, believers and communities around the world have drawn spiritual nourishment and doctrinal clarity from these 39 books. They set the stage for the fulfillment of the prophecies pointing to the Messiah, thus forming the foundation upon which the New Testament writings stand. As Luke 24:44 declares, the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms all point to the ultimate redemptive plan revealed in the Messiah promised from the beginning.