What did the Prophet Muhammad say or do? I. Historical Overview Muhammad (c. 570–632 AD) is traditionally regarded by Muslims as the chief prophet and founder of Islam. According to early Islamic sources such as Ibn Ishaq’s Sīrat Rasūl Allāh (The Life of the Messenger of God), he was born in Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula. Orphaned at a young age, he was raised by his extended family from the Quraysh tribe. As an adult, he earned a reputation for trustworthiness, leading to his nickname “al-Amīn” (the trustworthy). Multiple accounts within Islamic tradition suggest that around 610 AD, he began receiving what he believed to be divine revelations delivered by the angel Jibril (Gabriel). These revelations were subsequently compiled into what is known as the Quran. Over the following years, Muhammad publicly proclaimed this new monotheistic faith in Mecca, advocating for the worship of one God (Allah in Arabic). His preaching attracted both followers and opposition, ultimately forcing him and his followers to migrate to Yathrib (later renamed Medina) in 622 AD—an event called the Hijra. This marks year one in the Islamic calendar. II. Primary Islamic Sources on Muhammad 1. Quran: Muslims believe this is a verbatim record of the revelations Muhammad received. 2. Hadith Collections: These are compilations of reports (hadith) about what Muhammad said and did. For example, Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim are two of the most quoted sources concerning his life and teachings. 3. Sīra (Biography) Literature: Early works like that of Ibn Ishaq, partially preserved by Ibn Hisham, describe Muhammad’s life with varying degrees of legendary material intertwined with historical data. 4. Commentaries (Tafsīr): Muslim scholars wrote extensive commentaries to interpret the Quranic verses, often attributing background stories to events in Muhammad’s life. From these sources, Muhammad emerges as both a religious leader receiving revelations and a political figure leading the fledgling Muslim community in Medina, engaging in treaties and battles, including events like the Battle of Badr (624 AD), the Battle of Uhud (625 AD), and the Conquest of Mecca (630 AD). III. Teachings and Actions According to Islamic Tradition According to Islamic records, Muhammad’s primary message emphasized worship of the one God, moral rectitude, and communal responsibility. Some of the core teachings include: 1. Monotheism: Throughout the Quran, Muhammad consistently calls for the rejection of idol worship, aligning his message with a continuation of the faith of figures like Abraham. 2. Moral Code: Hadith sources portray Muhammad declaring guidelines for social conduct: honesty, charity, humility, care for orphans and the poor, and the importance of family life. 3. Scriptural Continuity: Islamic teaching holds that Muhammad affirmed the earlier prophets (including those recognized in the Bible), presenting the Quran as a final reiteration of divine messages. 4. Community and Law: In Medina, Muhammad served as leader and legislator, establishing what later became Islamic law (Sharia), with instructions on worship, commerce, matrimonial relations, and civil matters. IV. Notable Historical Events 1. Meccan Period (c. 610–622 AD) During these years, Muhammad taught primarily in his hometown of Mecca. Opposition from local leaders led to episodes of persecution against his followers. 2. Hijra to Medina (622 AD) Under increasing threat, Muhammad and his followers migrated approximately 200 miles to Yathrib. This move, considered the start of the Muslim calendar, allowed Muhammad to govern a community structured around Islamic principles. 3. Conquest of Mecca (630 AD) In a relatively short period of eight years after the Hijra, Muhammad’s influence expanded. Upon entering Mecca peacefully, he reportedly destroyed traditional idols at the Kaaba, re-dedicating it to the worship of one God. 4. Farewell Sermon (632 AD) Shortly before his death, Muhammad gave a farewell address near Mount Arafat. Islamic records recount exhortations to uphold justice, equality, and fidelity to God’s message. V. Perspectives on Muhammad in Relation to Biblical Narratives From the standpoint of Scripture (Berean Standard Bible), there is no explicit mention of Muhammad. Various passages about testing claims of prophecy—such as in 1 John 4:1 (“Beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God…”)—are sometimes discussed in Christian literature when evaluating new or subsequent prophets in centuries after the time of the New Testament. Additionally, while the Quran sees Muhammad as the final messenger, Christian doctrine upholds that Jesus is the fulfillment of the law and the prophets (cf. Matthew 5:17). The biblical text consistently points to the culmination of redemptive history in the person and work of Christ (cf. John 14:6; Colossians 1:19–20), who is regarded as “the image of the invisible God” (*Colossians 1:15*) and the ultimate revelation. VI. Contrasting Doctrine and Practice 1. Scriptural Foundation: • The Bible affirms both the Old and New Testaments as the completed Word of God (cf. 2 Timothy 3:16). • Islamic theology teaches that the Quran supersedes earlier Scriptures, while also revering the Torah (Tawrat) and the Gospel (Injil) in principle, but considering them altered or incomplete. 2. Nature of Messiah: • Christians affirm the deity of Jesus (cf. John 1:1–5) and His resurrection (cf. 1 Corinthians 15:3–4) as historical fact and the center of salvation. • Islam regards Jesus (ʿIsa) as a prophet, born of a virgin, but not divine, and denies the crucifixion as described in the Gospels. 3. Salvation: • The Bible teaches that salvation is by grace through faith in Christ’s redemptive sacrifice (cf. Ephesians 2:8–9). • Islam emphasizes submission to God and adherence to religious duties (the Five Pillars) as critical for salvation, alongside God’s mercy. VII. Historical Footprints and Community Impact By the time of Muhammad’s death in 632 AD, the Arabian Peninsula had largely embraced Islam. Caliphs (successors) expanded this new religious and political domain throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia and Europe in subsequent decades. Historical sources like al-Tabari’s Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk (History of the Prophets and Kings) document these expansions. For centuries, civilizations under Islamic rule have produced advancements in literature, science, architecture, and mathematics, forming a significant historical heritage. At the same time, Christian communities continued to develop their own theological and scholarly traditions, particularly clarifying the New Testament canon and the early church creeds that affirm Christ’s deity and resurrection. VIII. Archaeological and Manuscript Evidence While direct archaeological references to Muhammad himself are minimal—due in part to the seventh-century Arabian Peninsula’s sparse material culture—what does exist centers on inscriptions or early mosque structures believed to date to the first century of Islam. Muslim historians correlate these sites with episodes from Muhammad’s life. The textual transmission of the Quran is extensively studied, with notable manuscripts such as the Birmingham Quran Manuscript (radiocarbon dated to the period near Muhammad’s lifetime). Christian manuscript evidence, such as the thousands of Greek New Testament manuscripts, underscores the reliability of the biblical record relevant to early Christian claims. These fields of study highlight the distinct textual histories within Christianity and Islam. IX. Implications for Comparative Faith When evaluating Muhammad’s life and sayings, the question of authority is pivotal. Christian doctrine, upheld by biblical texts, emphasizes that God’s revelation culminates in the person of Jesus Christ. The concept of any subsequent universal prophet, even if revered by millions, must be measured against what believers see as the complete revelation of Christ’s work and the testimonies preserved in Scripture. This leads to ongoing theological dialogue: One side views the Quran and the life of Muhammad as a restoration or continuation of the prophetic lineage, while the other side holds that the biblical narrative was fulfilled and brought to its apex in Jesus—crucified and risen, as attested by multiple eyewitnesses (cf. 1 Corinthians 15:5–8). X. Conclusion Muhammad’s life and teachings, recorded in Islamic sources and echoed in the historical consciousness of his followers, stand as major foundations of one of the world’s largest religions. From a strictly historical perspective, his leadership reshaped Arabia and influenced a broad region culturally, politically, and spiritually. In exploring Muhammad’s role, it is essential also to recognize the contrasting claims between biblical teachings and Islamic tradition. Christian references to the finality of Christ as God’s revelation shape how believers assess any incoming claims of prophethood after the New Testament was established. As with all religious figures, the inquiry into Muhammad’s sayings and actions involves examining ancient texts, interpreting their theological weight, and evaluating them in light of the complete scriptural witness that Christians uphold as final. |
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