If the Catholic Church was originally the true church, why did Protestantism develop?

The Early Centuries of the Church

In the earliest days following the resurrection of Christ, believers gathered in unity around the apostles’ teaching and fellowship. As recorded in Acts 2:42, “They devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and to the fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer.” This assembly of believers was often referred to by the Greek term “katholikos,” meaning “universal.” Over time, the term “Catholic Church” came to designate those who aligned doctrinally and organizationally under episcopal leadership.

During these first centuries, the church faced persecution from the Roman Empire, yet it grew. Some of the earliest extra-biblical testimonies to the historic figure of Jesus and His followers are discovered in the writings of Tacitus and Josephus. Archaeological data—such as inscriptions and house-church sites uncovered in the regions once ruled by Rome—also corroborate the existence of thriving Christian communities centered on the message of Christ’s resurrection (cf. the remains of an early Christian meeting place in Dura-Europos, dated to the 3rd century).

Formation of Ecclesiastical Hierarchy

By the fourth century, the church was recognized officially when Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan (AD 313), granting religious tolerance. As Christianity became further entwined with imperial structures, local congregations, once guided by appointed elders (cf. Titus 1:5-7), increasingly aligned under metropolitan bishops.

Church councils were formed to address doctrinal disputes. For instance, the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325) defended the eternality of the Son. Meanwhile, the gradual development of ecclesiastical hierarchy involved a growing emphasis on tradition alongside Scripture. Over centuries, certain practices, doctrines, and liturgical elements were instituted that, in time, some believers discerned as straying beyond or against biblical foundations.

Doctrinal and Practical Tensions

Various controversies arose around issues such as the authority of Scripture versus the authority of the church’s governing body, the nature of salvation, the role of sacraments, and the means of grace. Many believers embraced the consistency of Scripture as affirmed in passages like 2 Timothy 3:16: “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for instruction, for conviction, for correction, and for training in righteousness.”

In the medieval era, increasing disillusionment appeared over ecclesiastical abuses such as the sale of indulgences. Anecdotal cases from church history recount that individuals within monastic communities began reading Scripture for themselves, noticing inconsistencies between certain traditional teachings and the biblical text.

Pre-Reform Voices

Calls for reformation did not appear suddenly. Earlier figures, sometimes referred to as “forerunners,” voiced concerns. Men like John Wycliffe (14th century) in England translated Scripture into the vernacular. Jan Hus (15th century) in Bohemia questioned indulgences and other church practices. Both faced strong opposition from church authorities.

Notably, the availability of biblical manuscripts multiplied. Documents such as the Latin Vulgate, while standard in the West, led to questions regarding textual clarity and fidelity to the ancient Greek and Hebrew. Later manuscript discoveries—including Greek texts from Byzantium—circulated in Western Europe, giving scholars broader access to the original languages of the Bible.

The Spark of the Reformation

By the early 16th century, internal catalysts for reform were ignited by believers who sensed a divergence from the apostolic teaching. Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk, famously posted his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, challenging the practice of indulgences and underscoring salvation by grace alone: “For it is by grace you have been saved through faith” (Ephesians 2:8).

This event set off a chain reaction throughout Europe. In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli preached a return to biblical primacy, and shortly after, John Calvin published seminal works emphasizing the sovereignty of God and the authority of Scripture.

Scripture and the Printing Press

A significant factor in Protestantism’s swift expansion was the advent of the printing press. The Gutenberg printing press (mid-15th century) drastically reduced the cost of producing Bibles, making the Scriptures widely accessible. Once Scripture became available in local languages, individuals could read verses such as John 5:39: “You pore over the Scriptures because you presume that by them you possess eternal life. These are the very words that testify about Me.” The conviction grew that ultimate authority rested in Scripture’s testimony of Christ, rather than traditions that appeared to conflict with the biblical record.

Key Theological Distinctions

1. Sola Scriptura (Scripture Alone)

Protestants held that Scripture was the ultimate arbiter of doctrine and practice. This concern was partly fueled by the increasing manuscript evidence—including early papyrus portions of the New Testament (such as the John Rylands papyrus, dated to the second century). These manuscripts revealed strong consistency with later biblical texts, suggesting that Scripture had been accurately transmitted.

2. Sola Fide (Faith Alone) and Sola Gratia (Grace Alone)

These emphases connected believers back to verses like Romans 3:28: “For we maintain that a man is justified by faith apart from works of the law.” The rightful place of works as a fruit of faith, rather than a component of salvation, became a defining hallmark.

3. Priesthood of All Believers

Based on passages such as 1 Peter 2:9—“You are a chosen people, a royal priesthood…”—Protestants taught that every believer has direct access to God without the necessity of a human intermediary. This diminished the reliance on ecclesiastical hierarchy for a believer’s walk with God.

Continuity of the True Church

Many historians and theologians assert that the “true church” is the collective body of believers united by faith in Christ’s finished work on the cross (cf. Ephesians 1:22-23). Even amid the institutional structures of the medieval era, genuine believers who looked to Scripture and the Lordship of Christ could be found. The development of Protestantism does not negate the existence of faithful witness within earlier centuries; rather, it emerged from a desire to reform certain practices and restore what was perceived as apostolic Christianity.

Ongoing Refinement and Further Movements

After the initial Reformation, Protestant movements continued to spread and diversify. Another wave of revivals—such as the Great Awakenings in the 18th and 19th centuries—further emphasized personal conversion, biblical authority, and evangelism. These revivals contributed to missionary efforts, leading to widespread dissemination of the Scriptures across cultures.

Archaeological and Historical Corroboration

Archaeological discoveries—like the Dead Sea Scrolls—demonstrate the remarkable reliability of Old Testament texts, revealing minimal deviation over centuries of transmission. The New Testament’s manuscript tradition is among the richest in ancient literature, with over 5,800 Greek manuscripts, more than 10,000 Latin translations, and multiple sources in Coptic, Syriac, and other languages. This abundant evidence supports the conclusion that the biblical text remains consistent.

Moreover, historical corroboration of biblical events in Asia Minor, the Levant, and North Africa (e.g., findings at Jericho or the remains of first-century fishing boats in the Sea of Galilee region) underscores Scripture’s historical plausibility. These discoveries reinforce believers’ conviction that Scripture stands as a trustworthy witness to God’s redemptive plan.

Conclusion

Protestantism arose out of a confluence of factors: concern for ecclesiastical abuses, a renewed look at biblical authority, fresh manuscript evidence, and the technological advantage of the printing press. Many sought to return to what they saw as authentic apostolic faith, grounded in Scripture, made possible by Christ’s atoning work, and sustained by God’s grace alone.

Regardless of denominational boundaries that formed through the centuries, countless believers—past and present—agree that there is “one Lord, one faith, one baptism” (Ephesians 4:5). The quest of the Reformation was not to dismiss the true church but to call it back to the original foundation laid by the apostles and prophets, with “Christ Jesus Himself as the cornerstone” (Ephesians 2:20).