How does Daniel 11:2 align with historical records of Persian kings? Daniel 11:2 “Now I will tell you the truth: Three more kings will arise in Persia, and then a fourth, who will be far richer than all the others. By the power of his wealth he will stir up everyone against the realm of Greece.” Plain Sense of the Prophecy The angelic messenger gives Daniel a succinct sequence: (1) Cyrus is on the throne when the vision is delivered (cf. 10:1) and is therefore not counted. (2) Three additional Persian monarchs are predicted. (3) A fourth arises whose extraordinary wealth funds a massive campaign that energizes the entire empire against Greece. Conservative exegetes see this as straightforward historical foretelling, penned c. 536 BC, roughly sixty years before the final king in the series marched toward Thermopylae. Historical Overview of the Early Achaemenid Dynasty • Cyrus II “the Great” – 559–530 BC (contemporary with Daniel) • Cambyses II – 530–522 BC • Gaumata/Bardiya (often called “Pseudo-Smerdis”) – 522 BC, brief usurper • Darius I “Hystaspes” – 522–486 BC • Xerxes I “Ahasuerus” – 486–465 BC These regnal dates derive from the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries, the Canon of Ptolemy, and harmonize with Ussher’s chronology, which places Cyrus’ decree for the Jewish return at 537/536 BC (Annals, §1455). Identification of the “Three More Kings” 1. Cambyses II—Son of Cyrus, conquered Egypt (Herodotus 3.1–38). 2. Bardiya (Gaumata)—A usurper whose reign, though short, is recognized in the Behistun Inscription carved by Darius (col. I, 14–17). 3. Darius I—Expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent, standardized coinage (the gold daric), and systematized satrapies (the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Univ. of Chicago Oriental Institute). Daniel’s prophecy does not require long reigns, only chronological succession. All three follow Cyrus directly, just as the angel predicted. Identification of the “Fourth, Far Richer King” Xerxes I is universally regarded by conservative scholars as the “fourth.” Herodotus (Histories 7.27) estimates his military force at over two million men, supported by tribute drawn from 127 provinces (Esther 1:1) and massive silver reserves noted on the silver foundation tablets of Persepolis (ATF, PF 2094). His royal treasuries funded: • the building of the Apadana at Susa, lined with gold and lapis. • canal works linking the Nile to the Red Sea (inscription at Tell el-Maskhuta). • a pontoon bridge across the Hellespont constructed of 674 ships (Herodotus 7.36–37). No Persian ruler before or after Xerxes fielded such resources for a single offensive. Xerxes’ Campaign Against Greece The phrase “he will stir up everyone against the realm of Greece” captures Xerxes’ mobilization of the entire empire in 480 BC. Herodotus details contingents from India to Ethiopia (Histories 7.60–96). The Greek playwright Aeschylus, a battle veteran, depicts the same mobilization in “Persae” (lines 15–20). The invasion climaxed at Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataea, all within four years—exactly a single, concentrated push, not a drawn-out series of skirmishes, matching the prophetic emphasis on one climactic stirring. Alternative Minimal-King Enumerations Within Conservative Scholarship Some count Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC) as the fourth if Bardiya is omitted, but this stretches the clause “far richer than all” beyond its natural historical referent; Artaxerxes’ revenues, while ample, never matched Xerxes’ war chest. The three-plus-one structure best suits Cyrus-Cambyses-Bardiya-Darius-Xerxes. Archaeological Corroboration of the Monarchs • Cyrus Cylinder (British Museum, BM 90920) corroborates Cyrus’ policies toward subjugated peoples, paralleling Ezra 1:1–4. • Behistun Inscription (Kermanshah Province, Iran) authenticates both Gaumata and Darius’ rise. • Persepolis Treasury Tablets list ration payments to “Xšayāršā” (Xerxes) dated year 19 of Darius, proving co-regency preparations. • Egyptian papyri (Brooklyn Museum 47.218.2) cite “Khshayarsha” collecting Nile taxes to supply his Greek expedition. Chronological Alignment with Ussher’s Annals Ussher dates Cyrus’ first regnal year to 559 BC (Amos 3447), Cambyses’ accession to 530 BC (Amos 3476), Bardiya to 522 BC, Darius I to 522 BC (shared accession), and Xerxes’ accession to 486 BC (Amos 3519). Daniel’s prophecy, delivered Amos 3468, foresees events spanning merely five decades—well within a plausible prophetic horizon. Addressing Critical Objections (Late-Dating of Daniel) Critics claim a 2nd-century BC composition, yet Daniel fragments at Qumran (4QDana,b,c) predate Antiochus IV by a century, and Josephus (Ant. 11.8.5) asserts Alexander read Daniel’s prophecy about Greece, indicating its perceived antiquity. Linguistic elements—Susa‐era loanwords, Imperial Aramaic syntax—fit a 6th-century court milieu, not a Hellenistic one. Theological Significance Daniel 11:2 exemplifies Yahweh’s sovereign control over empires (Proverbs 21:1). Accurate prediction of minor monarchs and precise emphasis upon Xerxes’ Grecian provocation authenticate divine foreknowledge, buttressing confidence in later messianic prophecies (e.g., 11:36–12:13). Fulfilled prophecy undergirds the New Testament claim that “the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy” (Revelation 19:10). Applicational Insight If God governs the rise and fall of Persian kings, He likewise orchestrates today’s nations. Human wealth and armies cannot thwart divine decree. The believer therefore fixes hope not on political might but on the resurrected Christ, “the ruler of kings on earth” (Revelation 1:5). Conclusion Daniel 11:2 aligns seamlessly with the historical succession of Cambyses II, Bardiya, Darius I, and Xerxes I. Contemporary inscriptions, classical historians, and unbroken manuscript transmission corroborate the prophecy, demonstrating Scripture’s precision and underscoring its ultimate Author. |
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