What historical context explains the treatment of servants in Exodus 21:21? Canonical Text Exodus 21:21: “However, if the slave gets up after a day or two, he is not to be punished, since the slave is his property.” The surrounding case law (Exodus 21:20–21) functions as one indivisible unit. Verse 20 addresses immediate death (“he must be punished”), verse 21 addresses recovery after two days. Ancient Near Eastern Background Nuzi tablets (15th century BC), Alalakh texts, and the Code of Hammurabi (§§195-201) regulate masters who harm servants. Hammurabi demanded only a monetary fine if a master killed his servant (§215). By contrast, Exodus 21:20 requires capital or corporal punishment when death results. The Israelite statute is therefore more protective than contemporary Mesopotamian practice (cf. ANET, Pritchard, 1955, pp. 172-173). Israelite Servitude vs. Chattel Slavery 1. Limited Duration: Hebrew servants were released in the seventh year (Exodus 21:2; Deuteronomy 15:12). 2. Kinship Redemption: A relative could redeem a kinsman at any time (Leviticus 25:47-49). 3. Human Dignity: Masters were prohibited from permanent bodily harm; loss of eye or tooth mandated immediate emancipation (Exodus 21:26-27). 4. Equal Justice: Murder of a servant incurred the same penalty as any homicide (Exodus 21:12). Thus the Mosaic system functioned as debt-servitude with exit doors, not race-based lifelong slavery. Purpose of the Case Law Casuistic (“if… then…”) laws served as bench precedents. Exodus 21:20-21 clarifies proportional retribution (lex talionis, Exodus 21:23-25): intentional lethal violence ‑-> punishment; non-lethal injury ‑-> no death penalty, but loss of labor and medical care already penalize the master (qesep). “Gets Up After a Day or Two” Hebrew idiom “yāʿămōd” (“rises”) signals recovery sufficient to walk about (cf. Genesis 4:8 LXX). In ANE law, courts judged intent by outcome. A servant who revived proved the blow was non-mortal; malice aforethought could not be established (Numbers 35:22-24). Nonetheless, other passages obligate compensation for injuries (Exodus 21:18-19) and forbid oppression (Leviticus 19:13). Comparative Ethics • Code of Hammurabi §199: knocking out a slave’s eye = half his value in silver. • Exodus 21:26: knocking out a servant’s eye = freedom—infinitely costlier to the master. Israel’s law uniquely elevates the servant’s dignity by tying bodily integrity to emancipation. Archaeological Corroboration • Samaria Ostraca (8th century BC) record debt payment through labor, confirming biblical debt-servant practices. • Elephantine Papyri (5th century BC) show Jewish communities still manumitting servants in the sabbatical rhythm, aligning with Deuteronomy 15. Theological Foundation Human beings bear God’s image (Genesis 1:26-27). Therefore violence against a servant is violence against an image-bearer (Job 31:13-15). The law’s function is not ideal but remedial (Matthew 19:8), restraining a fallen culture and pointing forward to the gospel’s liberating trajectory (Galatians 3:28; 1 Timothy 1:10; Philemon 16). Progressive Revelation and Christological Fulfillment Christ, taking “the form of a servant” (Philippians 2:7), bore the injustice of corporal punishment and rose on the third day. His resurrection inaugurates the kingdom ethic that ultimately abolishes slave-master distinctions (Ephesians 6:9; Colossians 4:1). Practical Implications • Employers must treat workers justly, recognizing their labor as service rendered to the Lord (Colossians 3:23-24). • Believers oppose trafficking and modern slavery, reflecting God’s heart for the oppressed (Isaiah 58:6). • The passage exemplifies how Scripture confronts sin within culture while unfolding a redemptive arc consummated in Christ. Summary Exodus 21:21 operates within an ancient debt-servitude system, limiting a master’s power, demanding human dignity, and surpassing neighboring law codes in protecting servants. Far from endorsing cruelty, it channels justice toward redemption, a trajectory completed in the death-and-resurrection of Jesus, liberating all who believe. |
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