What is the history of Israel and Judah?

Origins and Patriarchs

Israel’s history begins with the patriarchs, traditionally dated to around the early second millennium BC. Abraham is called to leave his homeland in Mesopotamia (Genesis 12) and journey to Canaan, with the promise of becoming “a great nation” (Genesis 12:2). The biblical chronology places Abraham’s grandson Jacob (later renamed Israel in Genesis 32:28) as the father of twelve sons who become the heads of the tribes of Israel. Archaeological finds like the Mari Tablets (18th century BC) and Nuzi Tablets (15th century BC) provide background for the customs described in Genesis, helping portray these patriarchal narratives as authentic to their historical setting.

Slavery in Egypt and the Exodus

Through Joseph’s rise to power in Egypt (Genesis 41–47), Jacob’s family settles in the fertile region of Goshen. Over generations, the Israelites multiply and eventually become enslaved (Exodus 1). Moses is raised up by God to lead the people out of bondage. The account depicts ten plagues, culminating in the Passover (Exodus 12), and the crossing of the Red Sea (Exodus 14). Various scholars note possible correlations with Egyptian historical disruptions, and while specifics are debated, the Merneptah Stele (late 13th century BC) is notable for mentioning “Israel” in Canaan, suggesting an Israelite presence not long after many traditional dates for the Exodus.

Conquest and Settlement

Following the Exodus, the Israelites wander in the wilderness for forty years and then, under Joshua’s leadership, they enter the land of Canaan (Joshua 3–4). Scripture records victories at Jericho and Ai (Joshua 6–8). Archaeological work at some sites, such as Jericho’s ancient layers, continues to provoke discussion, but many scholars accept a wave of settlement appearing in the central highlands around this era, broadly aligning with the biblical account.

The Period of the Judges

After Joshua’s death, Israel is governed by a series of judges for several generations (Judges 2:16). The Book of Judges describes cycles of sin, foreign oppression, repentance, and deliverance raised through leaders like Deborah, Gideon, and Samson. This era is marked by tribal confederation and sporadic unity when confronting external threats. Historical insights gleaned from the Amarna Letters (14th century BC) mention unrest and regional conflicts, echoes of a tumultuous time consistent with the biblical narrative.

The United Monarchy

Israel requests a king, and Saul is anointed as the first monarch around 1050 BC (1 Samuel 10). His reign is followed by David, who consolidates the kingdom and conquers Jerusalem (2 Samuel 5). Extrabiblical evidence such as the Tel Dan Stele (9th century BC) references the “House of David.” Under David’s son Solomon, the kingdom reaches its pinnacle: Solomon builds the Temple in Jerusalem (1 Kings 6), extending trade and alliances. Scripture highlights the spiritual significance of the Temple as the dwelling place of God’s Name (1 Kings 8).

The Divided Kingdom

After Solomon’s death, the nation splits into the northern kingdom of Israel (ten tribes) and the southern kingdom of Judah (two tribes), around 930 BC (1 Kings 12). Israel’s capital moves from Shechem to Samaria, while Judah’s capital remains Jerusalem. Many kings in both realms “did evil in the sight of the LORD” (2 Kings 13:2), leading to instability. Key figures like the prophets Elijah and Elisha confront idolatry in Israel (1 Kings 17–2 Kings 13), while prophets like Isaiah and Micah minister primarily to Judah.

Fall of the Northern Kingdom

In 722 BC, the Assyrian Empire conquers the northern kingdom of Israel. Second Kings records that “the king of Assyria captured Samaria and carried Israel away to Assyria” (2 Kings 17:6). The Assyrian Annals corroborate the empire’s campaigns in this region. These exiles are sometimes referred to as the “lost tribes,” though remnants of Israel’s population remained in the land and intermingled with subsequent settlers.

Judah’s Survival and Reforms

Judah endures beyond the fall of Israel. Notable kings such as Hezekiah institute religious reforms, tearing down high places of idol worship (2 Kings 18:4). Archaeological evidence at Tel Lachish supports an Assyrian campaign in Judah under Sennacherib around 701 BC, matching biblical accounts (2 Kings 18–19). Later, King Josiah enacts sweeping reforms tied to rediscovering the Book of the Law in the Temple (2 Kings 22:8–13).

The Babylonian Exile

Eventually, Judah succumbs to Babylon: Jerusalem is destroyed in 586 BC, and most of its population is taken captive (2 Chronicles 36:17–21). Babylonian records, including the Babylonian Chronicle, align with the biblical timeframe for Nebuchadnezzar’s campaigns. Yet the biblical prophets, such as Jeremiah (Jeremiah 25:11–12), foretell that this exile would last seventy years.

Return and Reconstruction

Persia overthrows Babylon in 539 BC, and soon Cyrus the Great issues a decree permitting exiles to return (Ezra 1:1–4). The Cyrus Cylinder, discovered at ancient Babylon, confirms Persian practices of repatriating displaced peoples. Under leadership figures like Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, the Temple and Jerusalem’s walls are rebuilt. The Persian era fosters a renewed commitment to following God’s Law, setting the stage for the subsequent centuries leading to the New Testament era.

Key Archaeological Corroborations

- The Merneptah Stele (c. 1209 BC) names Israel in Canaan.

- The Tel Dan Stele (9th century BC) references the “House of David.”

- The Babylonian Chronicle records Nebuchadnezzar’s campaigns near 600 BC, aligning with 2 Kings 24–25.

- The Cyrus Cylinder references policies of restoration akin to Ezra 1.

Interplay of Israel and Judah in Redemptive History

Though Israel and Judah experienced repeated rebellions and eventual exiles, the prophetic hope remains in a promised Messiah who would restore not only the fortunes of Israel and Judah but invite all nations to worship the one true God. Passages throughout Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel speak of reunification and spiritual renewal, anticipating the ultimate fulfillment of God’s promises.

Conclusion

The overarching narrative of Israel and Judah is one of covenant, kingdom establishment, division, exile, and partial restoration. Scripture presents their history as a reflection of humanity’s need for divine grace and guidance. Outside documents and archaeological discoveries lend support to the chronology and major events recorded in biblical accounts, reinforcing the continuity and reliability of Scripture’s portrayal of this pivotal storyline. As 2 Chronicles 36:23 records in Cyrus’s edict: “The LORD, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth and has appointed me to build Him a house at Jerusalem…”—a historical testament to how God’s hand worked through kings and nations to accomplish His redemptive plan.