Why does Exodus 21:10 permit polygamy, and what does that mean for biblical morality? The Text Itself “Exodus 21:10 — If he takes another wife, he must not diminish the first one’s food, clothing, or marital rights.” The verse is part of a case-law section (Exodus 21–23) delivered immediately after the Ten Commandments. It addresses the rights of a woman who has been taken as a secondary wife by a Hebrew man who first acquired her as a female servant (vv. 7-11). The grammar is conditional (“if”), not imperative (“must”), marking regulation, not endorsement. Translation Notes and Legal Setting • “Food” (šĕʾēr) refers to flesh or ration. • “Clothing” (kāsût) encompasses seasonal garments and shelter-like coverings. • “Marital rights” (‘ōnâ) denotes conjugal time and emotional/sexual care. The triad mirrors Ancient Near Eastern marriage contracts from Nuzi (15th-c. BC) and Alalakh, where husbandly obligations likewise included “oil, wool, and intercourse.” Exodus codifies a comparable standard but uniquely grants the wife legal recourse: if any duty is withheld, “she is to go free, without payment of money” (v. 11). Historical-Cultural Background Polygamy was culturally common from Mesopotamia to Egypt. Archaeological finds—the Mari letters, Middle Assyrian Law §59, and Elephantine papyri—list multiple-wife households. Secular codes protected male property; Scripture uniquely protects the woman’s dignity, assigning positive rights rather than penalties for breach. The Creation Ideal of Monogamy Genesis 2:24 establishes the paradigm: “a man…be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh.” The singular nouns (ʾiš, ʾiššāh) and Jesus’ later citation (Matthew 19:4-6) define God’s moral norm as one-man/one-woman unions. No Old Testament law commands polygamy; allowance appears only as civil regulation within a fallen culture. Regulation ≠ Moral Approval Civil codes in the Mosaic Law often “hedge” imperfect social realities (e.g., divorce, Deuteronomy 24:1-4; slavery, Exodus 21:2-6). Jesus labels such concessions “because of your hardness of heart” (Matthew 19:8). Exodus 21:10 functions the same way—curbing exploitation, not commending the practice. Protective Function of the Statute By mandating continued provision, the law: 1. Shields the first wife from neglect if a rival is added. 2. Creates financial disincentive for taking additional wives. 3. Provides an exit clause (v. 11) freeing an abused woman—an unprecedented right in the ancient world. Progressive Revelation Toward Monogamy • Deuteronomy 17:17 discourages kings from “many wives.” • Leviticus 18:18 forbids marrying a wife’s sister as a rival during the first wife’s lifetime. • Prophets depict ideal restoration as monogamous (Isaiah 54:5; Hosea 2:19). • Wisdom literature describes the excellent singular wife (Proverbs 5:18-19). Narrative Demonstrations of Polygamy’s Cost Scripture records every polygamous household as fraught with jealousy and strife: • Abraham – Hagar & Sarah (Genesis 16; 21). • Jacob – Leah & Rachel (Genesis 29–30). • Elkanah – Hannah & Peninnah (1 Samuel 1). • David & Solomon’s polygamy leads to national turmoil (2 Samuel 13; 1 Kings 11). The cumulative portrayal is cautionary, not celebratory. New-Covenant Reaffirmation of Monogamy • Jesus cites Genesis, adding, “What therefore God has joined together, let man not separate.” (Matthew 19:6) • Pastoral qualifications require “the husband of but one wife” (1 Timothy 3:2,12; Titus 1:6). • The church is the singular Bride (Ephesians 5:31-32; Revelation 19:7). No New Testament allowance for polygamy exists; instead, Spirit-empowered believers are called back to the Edenic design. Theological Framework: Divine Accommodation God’s law often accommodates fallen customs to restrain sin until Christ fulfills the Law (Galatians 3:19-25). Exodus 21:10 is analogous to Deuteronomy 24’s divorce concession—temporary, regulatory, and superseded by the gospel ethic of sacrificial, exclusive love. Extra-Biblical Corroboration • Nuzi Tablet HSS 5 67: stipulates maintenance of first wife if another is taken. • KTU 1.161 (Ugarit): lists identical triad of provisions. These parallels authenticate the Mosaic code’s antiquity and its superior moral concern. Implications for Biblical Morality Today 1. Descriptive tolerance in case law does not equal timeless mandate. 2. Monogamous marriage remains the only pattern affirmed from creation to consummation. 3. Exodus 21:10 underscores God’s concern for the vulnerable, modeling justice for contemporary marital ethics (James 1:27). Christological Fulfillment Jesus, the one Husband, lays down His life for His one Bride (Ephesians 5:25). The fidelity He demonstrates consummately eclipses polygamy’s fractures, offering a redeemed community where each believer is equally cherished (Galatians 3:28). Common Objections Answered • “If God allowed it, it must be good.” — Allowance is not approval; see slavery and divorce concessions. • “Patriarchs practiced it.” — Narrative portrayal exposes its dysfunction; morality is anchored in God’s explicit commands, not flawed human examples. • “No direct command forbids polygamy.” — Biblical morality flows from foundational creation ordinance reaffirmed by Christ; positive prescription supersedes silent prohibition. Conclusion Exodus 21:10 regulates a cultural reality to protect women and restrain sin, while the broader canon consistently upholds monogamous, covenantal marriage as God’s moral ideal. Understanding the verse within progressive revelation dissolves the charge of moral inconsistency and highlights Scripture’s unified witness to God’s redemptive purpose in Christ. |
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