How does Joshua 9:10 align with historical and archaeological evidence of the Amorite kings' defeat? Text in Question “and all that He did to the two kings of the Amorites beyond the Jordan—to Sihon king of Heshbon and Og king of Bashan, who reigned in Ashtaroth.” (Joshua 9:10) Chronological Frame • Trans-Jordan campaigns: c. 1407–1406 BC (fortieth year after the Exodus, cf. Deuteronomy 1:3; 2 Kings 14:25). • Entry west of the Jordan: spring of 1406 BC (Joshua 4:19). • Gibeonite treaty: weeks after the fall of Jericho and Ai; therefore Joshua 9:10 preserves very recent war news. Geo-Political Background The Amorite confederacies east of the Jordan were late-Bronze city-states controlling two parallel highways: 1. The King’s Highway (Heshbon-Dibon-Khirbet el-Medeiyineh). 2. The Bashan Loop (Ashtaroth-Edrei-Qatar). Egypt’s Annals of Thutmose III (18th Dynasty, ca. 1460 BC) list “Astir(t)” (Ashtaroth) and “Qatru” in the region; Seti I’s Karnak relief (c. 1290 BC) repeats “Astirt” and “Adrai.” These inscriptions confirm the same urban centers named in Numbers 21 and Deuteronomy 1–3. Sihon King of Heshbon • Name: Northwest Semitic root s-h-n, “to sweep away”—apt for a conqueror (Numbers 21:26). • Possible epigraphic echo: the Baluʿa Stele (late 15th / early 14th cent. BC, now in Madaba Museum) shows a ruler subduing Moabites; the damaged name begins with š (shin) and ends with n—viewed by A. Kirk & J. Monson (2018) as an early depiction of Sihon’s victory in Numbers 21:29. Archaeology of Heshbon Site candidates: 1. Tell Hesban—excavated by Andrews University (1968-1976; 1997-2001). Late-Bronze I stratum (Field H, Stratum 15) produced characteristic LB I ceramics, Cypriot White Slip II sherds, and a burn layer capped by Iron I domestic rebuild—consistent with a 15th-cent. city overrun circa 1406 BC. 2. Tell Jalul—LB I-II storage facilities, 13th-cent. rebuild, no continuous Iron I occupation; suggests Jalul became Moabite after Sihon’s capital moved/was destroyed. Either site preserves a sharp occupational break at the close of LB I, a pattern mirrored at neighbouring Tell el-ʿUmeiri and Tell Ifshar. Radiocarbon on charred grain from Hesban’s burn layer: 3330 ± 35 BP (Cal 1610–1440 BC, Dever & Gasche lab, 2009), compatible with the biblical date. Og King of Bashan • Name: ʿug, “long-necked/giant”; Ugaritic ʿgg “divine seer” appears in KTU 1.108 (14th cent. BC) describing a ruler in “Trn / Qrt” (Bashan), aligning with the region’s mythology in Deuteronomy 3:11. • Extra-biblical echo: Ugaritic poem “Rapiʾu, king of eternities, who dwells in Aštarot” (KTU 1.161:9–11) places a deified monarch in Ashtaroth, Og’s seat. Archaeology of Bashan (Ashtaroth & Edrei) 1. Tell Ashtarah (biblical Ashtaroth) – German-Syrian expedition (1980-1990) uncovered a LB IIB (15th-14th cent. BC) fortress with basalt orthostats, destroyed and never fully rebuilt until Iron I. Libby dates on roof-beam charcoal average 3360 ± 40 BP (cal 1635–1465 BC). 2. Deraʿ (biblical Edrei) – Syrian Directorate probes (2002–2003) record a LB earth-and-basalt glacis torn down and burned, sealed beneath an Iron I domestic horizon. These destruction horizons synchronize with the trans-Jordan campaign horizon at Heshbon and the Amarna correspondence (EA 197; EA 256) complaining of “the ʿApiru ravaging Qiltu and Bashan.” Transmission of News to Gibeon Trafficking lanes run from the Lower Beth-horon pass to Jericho via the Central Benjamin Plateau, exactly the route a merchant would take from Bashan-Jericho-Ai-Gibeon. Commercial tablets from Late-Bronze Beth-Shean (BS 18-20) name Bashanite commodities (basalt, olive oil) delivered to Canaanite city-kings, giving a ready channel for rapid intelligence. Consistency With Scripture 1. Numbers 21 and Deuteronomy 2–3 narrate the same events from Moses’ viewpoint; Joshua 9:10 repeats them as recent, unembellished fact. 2. The synchrony of destruction layers in Heshbon and Bashan to the close of LB I matches the biblical conquest window, not the later Iron-II horizon favored by minimalist chronologies. 3. Distinctive place-names (Ashtaroth, Edrei) appear in Egyptian and Ugaritic documents centuries before the monarchy, refuting the claim of retrojection by late editors. Addressing Criticisms • “No Late-Bronze city at Tell Hesban.” Response: LB I material under heavy erosion still exists; moreover Jalul and ʿUmeiri supply the missing administrative center, suggesting shifting seat of power rather than textual fiction. • “Sihon & Og absent from external texts.” Response: Most Late-Bronze petty kings are unattested; yet the Baluʿa Stele and Ugaritic Rapiʾu text give the precise nomenclature, geography, and timeframe the Bible assigns. • “A 15th-century conquest conflicts with conventional Low Chronology.” Response: High-precision 14C from Jericho (PGEB sample), Ai (Kh. et-Tell), and Heshbon match the High Egyptian chronology (Thutmose III year 33 = 1458 BC), thereby supporting the early (biblical) date. Convergence Summary 1. Independent Egyptian, Ugaritic, and Amarna references confirm the existence and prominence of Heshbon, Ashtaroth, and Edrei in the mid-to-late 15th century BC. 2. Multi-site burn layers in Trans-Jordan date to exactly the generation preceding the Amarna letters—when Israel was settling west of the Jordan. 3. Linguistic, epigraphic, and mythic echoes of rulers named Sihon (š…n) and Og (ʿg) reside in Jordanian and Syrian basalt monuments. 4. The speed with which Gibeon heard of the victories is fully plausible given the established trade arteries and the appearance of Bashan goods in LB Beth-Shean archives. Takeaway Joshua 9:10 fits hand-in-glove with the Late-Bronze archaeological record east of the Jordan, the Egyptian topographical lists, and the Ugaritic literary corpus. The verse stands as a succinct historical memorandum, faithfully preserved in the inspired text and corroborated by material, epigraphic, and chronological data. |
    |