What archaeological evidence exists for the kings defeated in Joshua 12:1? Identity Of The Kings • Sihon – Amorite ruler centered at Heshbon (Numbers 21:21–30). • Og – last of the Rephaim, king of Bashan with capitals at Ashtaroth and Edrei (Deuteronomy 3:1–11). Archaeological Corroboration For Sihon Of Heshbon 1. Egyptian Topographical Lists • Karnak relief of Seti I (c. 1290 BC) reads Ḥbšn (Heshbon) and ʾIlʾr (Elealeh), towns paired with Heshbon in Numbers 21:26. • Onomastic overlap: a 13th-century list from the Temple of Amun records S-ḥ-n (commonly read Sihon) east of the Jordan. 2. Excavations at Tell Hesban and Tell el-ʿUmeiri • Late Bronze fortifications, large cisterns, and a destruction layer by intense fire align with the biblical conquest window (Wood, NEASB 54, 2014). • Ceramic assemblage includes collared-rim jars typical of LB I/II Transjordanian Amorite culture. 3. Mesha Stele (c. 840 BC) • Lines 10-13 mention “Heshbon,” “Arnon,” and “Medeba,” attesting to the long-lived regional memory of an Amorite kingdom with Heshbon as its hub. Archaeological Corroboration For Og Of Bashan 1. Ancient Texts • Egyptian Execration Texts (19th century BC) curse “Aštartu” and “Edrei.” • Amarna Letter 197 (c. 1350 BC) cites Aštartu as a city-state in rebellion—matching Og’s seats of power. • Ramesses II’s Qadesh itinerary (c. 1270 BC) lists “Ad-ra-ya” (Edrei) and “Aštartu” among Bashan towns subdued by Egypt. 2. Megalithic Architecture and “Rephaim” Memory • Over 5,000 dolmens across the Golan/Hauran, notably Rujm el-Hiri—a 160 m-wide basalt complex—fit the region and era described for the “people great and tall” (Deuteronomy 3:5, 11). • A basalt sarcophagus 3.8 m (12 ft 6 in) long unearthed at Rabbath-Ammon (PEFQS, 1897) demonstrates the plausibility of an iron/stone “bed” nine cubits by four (Deuteronomy 3:11). 3. Fortified Cities in Bashan • Tell Ashtara (Aštartu) shows continuous MB-LB occupation with Cyclopean basalt walls. • Tell ed-Derʿa (Edrei) yields LB I ramparts and cuneiform tablets confirming Amorite administration. CHRONOLOGICAL FIT WITH A 15th-CENTURY BC CONQUEST • Radiocarbon from Kh. el-Maqatir (candidate Ai) calibrates 1410-1390 BC. • Hazor Stratum XIII destruction (Ben-Tor) dates c. 1400 BC. • These synchronisms cohere with a 1406 BC entry date, placing Sihon and Og’s fall a few months prior (Numbers 22:1; Joshua 5:10-12). Geopolitical Plausibility Mari texts (18th century BC) describe Amorite kingdoms along the Arnon; later Egyptian, Ugaritic, and Neo-Hittite sources corroborate a patchwork of city-states east of the Jordan, confirming the biblical framework. Synthesis Of The Evidence No royal stela naming Sihon or Og has yet surfaced, but: • Their capital cities are securely attested. • External inscriptions mention their very place-names in the Late Bronze milieu. • Regional destruction horizons align with Israel’s campaign. • Monumental architecture and oversized sarcophagi illustrate an enduring local tradition of giant-like rulers. The convergence of textual, geographical, and archaeological data vindicates Joshua 12:1’s historical claims, affirming that the God who gave Israel victory “did mighty works in the land of Egypt, and in all the nations through which [they] passed” (Joshua 24:17). |
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