Stoics

The Stoics and Epicureans, who are mentioned together in (Acts 17:18) represent the two opposite schools of practical philosophy which survived the fall of higher speculation in Greece. The Stoic school was founded by Zeno of Citium (cir. B.C. 280) and derived its name from the painted "portico" (stoa) at Athens in which he taught. Zeno was followed by Cleanthes (cir. B.C. 260); Cleanthes by Chrysippus (cir. B.C. 240) who was regarded as the founder of the Stoic system. "They regarded God and the world as power and its manifestation matter being a passive ground in which dwells the divine energy. Their ethics were a protest against moral indifference, and to live in harmony with nature, conformably with reason and the demands of universal good, and in the utmost indifference to pleasure, pain and all external good or evil, was their fundamental maxim." --American Cyclopaedia. The ethical system of the Stoics has been commonly supposed to have a close connection with Christian morality; but the morality of stoicism is essentially based on pride, that of Christianity on humility; the one upholds individual independence, the other absolute faith in another; the one looks for consolation in the issue of fate, the other in Providence; the one is limited by Periods of cosmical ruin, the other is consummated in a personal resurrection. (Acts 17:18) But in spite of the fundamental error of stoicism, which lies in a supreme egotism, the teaching of this school gave a wide currency to the noble doctrines of the fatherhood of God, the common bonds of mankind, the sovereignty of the soul. Among their most prominent representatives were Zeno and Antipater of Tarsus, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.

Stoics

A set of fatalistic heathen philosophers so named from the Greek word signifying porch, or portico, because Zeno its founder, more than three centuries before Christ, held his school in a porch of the city of Athens. They placed the supreme happiness of man in living agreeably to nature and reason; affecting the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility as the Pharisee, whom they much resembled. They were in great repute at Athens when Paul visited that city, Acts 17:18.

A sect of Greek philosophers at Athens, so called from the Greek word stoa i.e., a "porch" or "portico," where they have been called "the Pharisees of Greek paganism." The founder of the Stoics was Zeno, who flourished about B.C. 300. He taught his disciples that a man's happiness consisted in bringing himself into harmony with the course of the universe. They were trained to bear evils with indifference, and so to be independent of externals. Materialism, pantheism, fatalism, and pride were the leading features of this philosophy. STOICS

sto'-iks (Stoikoi):

1. Origin and Propagation

2. Metaphysics and Religion

3. Sensationalist Epistemology

4. Ethical Teaching

5. Relation to Christianity

LITERATURE

1. Origin and Propagation:

The name was derived from the Stoa Poikile, the painted porch at Athens, where the founders of the school first lectured. This school of Greek philosophy was founded at Athens circa 294 B.C. by Zeno (circa 336-264 B.C.), a native of Citium, a Greek colony in Cyprus. But the Semitic race predominated in Cyprus, and it has been conjectured that Zeno was of Semitic rather than Hellenic origin. His Greek critics taunted him with being a Phoenician. It has therefore been suggested that the distinctive moral tone of the system was Semitic and not Hellenic. Further color is given to this view by the fact that Zeno's immediate successors at the head of the school also hailed from Asia Minor, Cleanthes (331-232 B.C.) being a native of Assos, and Chrysippus (280-206 B.C.) of Soli in Cilicia. Several other adherents of the system hailed from Asia Minor, and it flourished in several Asiatic cities, such as Tarsus and Sidon. In the 2nd century B.C. the doctrine was brought to Rome by Panaetius of Rhodes (circa 189-109 B.C.), and in the course of the two succeeding centuries it spread widely among the upper classes of Roman society. It reckoned among its adherents a Scipio and a Cato, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, as well as the freedman Epictetus. The most adequate account of the teaching of the Greek Stoics has been preserved in the writings of Cicero, who, however, was a sympathetic critic, rather than an adherent of the school. The system acquired its most lasting influence by its adoption as the formative factor in the jurisprudence of imperial Rome, and Roman law in its turn contributed to the formation of Christian doctrine and ethics.

2. Metaphysics and Religion:

The main principles of Stoicism were promulgated by Zeno and Cleanthes, and Chrysippus formulated them into a systematic doctrine which became a standard of orthodoxy for the school, and which permitted but little freedom of speculation for its subsequent teachers. Whatever may have been the Semitic affinities of mind of Zeno and his followers, they derived the formal principles of their system from Greek antecedents. The ethical precept, "Follow Nature," they learnt from the Socratic school of Antisthenes, the Cynics. But they followed the earlier philosopher Heraclitus in defining the law of Nature as reason (logos), which was at once the principle of intelligence in man, and the divine reason immanent in the world. This doctrine they again combined with the prevalent Greek hylozoism, and therefore their metaphysics inclined to be a materialistic pantheism. On the one side, Nature is the organization of material atoms by the operation of its own uniform and necessary laws. On the other side, it is a living, rational being, subduing all its parts to work out a rational purpose inherent in the whole. As such it may be called Providence or God.

While the Stoics rejected the forms and rites of popular religion, they defended belief in God and inculcated piety and reverence toward Him. Their pantheism provided a basis for Greek polytheism also alongside of their monism, for where all the world is God, each part of it is divine, and may be worshipped. Another consequence of their pantheism was their attitude to evil, which they held to be only apparently or relatively evil, but really good in the harmony of the whole. Therefore they bore evil with courage and cheerfulness, because they believed that "all things worked together for good" absolutely.

3. Sensationalist Epistemology: The materialistic trend of their metaphysics also comes out in their epistemology, which was sensationalist. The human mind at its birth was a tabula rasa. Its first ideas were derived from sensations, the impressions made by the external world upon the soul, which they also conceived as a material body, though made of finer atoms than the external body. Out of these sense-impressions the mind built up its intuitions or preconceptions, and its notions, which constituted its store of ideas. It is not clear how far they attributed originative power to the mind as contributing some factor to the organization of knowledge, which was not derived from experience. The Stoic system is never consistently materialistic, nor consistently idealistic. Most of its terms are used in a dual sense, material and spiritual.

4. Ethical Teaching:

But its ethical teaching shows that the main trend of the system was spiritualistic. For its crown and climax was the ethics. The Stoics did not pursue knowledge for its own sake. They speculated about ultimate problems only for the practical purpose of discovering a rule of life and conduct. And in their ethics, the great commandment, "Follow Nature," is interpreted in a distinctly idealistic sense. It means, "Follow reason," as reason inheres both in man and in the universe as a whole. It is submission to Providence or the rational order of the universe, and the fulfillment of man's own rational nature. The life according to Nature is man's supreme good. How actual Nature could be the ideal good that man ought to seek, or how man was free to pursue an ideal, while he was bound in a system of necessity, were fundamental paradoxes of the system which the Stoics never solved. They summed up their moral teaching in the ideal of the sage or the wise man. His chief characteristic is ataraxy, a calm passionless mastery of all emotions, and independence of all circumstances. He therefore lives a consistent, harmonious life, in conformity with the perfect order of the universe. He discovers this order by knowledge or wisdom. But the Stoics also defined this ideal as a system of particular duties, such as purity in one's self, love toward all men, and reverence toward God. In Stoic ethics, Greek philosophy reached the climax of its moral teaching. Nowhere else outside Christianity do we find so exalted a rule of conduct for the individual, so humane, hopeful and comprehensive an deal for society.

5. Relation to Christianity:

When "certain.... of the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers encountered" Paul at Athens, and when, after the apostle had spoken on Mars' Hill, "some mocked; but others said, We will hear thee concerning this yet again" (Acts 17:18, 32), it is no improbable inference that the Epicureans mocked, while the Stoics desired to hear more. For they would find much in the apostle's teaching that harmonized with their own views. Paul's quotation from the classics in his Athenian speech was from the Stoic poet, Aratus of Soli in Cilicia: "For we are also his offspring." His doctrine of creation, of divine immanence, of the spirituality and fatherhood of God, would be familiar and acceptable to them. His preaching of Christ would not have been unwelcome to them, who were seeking for the ideal wise man. Paul's moral teaching as it appears in his Epistles reveals some resemblance to Stoic ethics. it is possible that Paul had learnt much from the Stoic school at Tarsus. It is certain that subsequent Christian thought owed much to Stoicism. Its doctrine of the immanent Logos was combined with Philo's conception of the transcendent Logos, to form the Logos doctrine through which the Greek Fathers construed the person of Christ. And Stoic ethics was taken over almost bodily by the Christian church.

See EPICUREANS; PHILOSOPHY.

LITERATURE. The chief extant sources are the writings of Cicero, De Finibus, De Natura Deorum, etc.; Seneca, Plutarch, M. Antoninus Aurelius, Epictetus, Diogenes Laertius, Sextus Empiricus and Stobaeus. Modern works: H. von Arnim, Stoicorum veterum fragmenta; Zeller, Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics; R. D. Hicks, Stoic and Epicurean; W. L. Davidson, The Stoic Creed; E. V. Arnold, Roman Stoicism, which contains a full bibliography and deals with the relation of Stoicism to Christianity; on the latter point see also Lightfoot, Philippians, Excursus II, "St. Paul and Seneca"; histories of philosophy by Rogers, Windelband, Ueberweg, and E. Caird.

T. Rees

Allegation 3 "The Predestination of the Stoics, and the Fatalism ...
... ALLEGATION 3 "THE PREDESTINATION OF THE STOICS, AND THE FATALISM OF THE STOICS,
HAS BEEN INTRODUCED BY US: BECAUSE"THEY SAY WE ASSERT THAT ALL THINGS ARE ...
/.../the works of james arminius vol 3/allegation 3 the predestination of.htm

The Opinion of the Stoics Concerning God; of his Anger and ...
... Chap. V."The Opinion of the Stoics Concerning God; Of His Anger and Kindness. ...
[1648] Promereri. [1649] The Stoics. [Encountered first by St. ...
/.../chap v the opinion of the.htm

That the Stoics Transfer the Figments of the Poets to a ...
... the divine institutes book i. of the false worship of the gods. Chap. xii."that
the stoics transfer the figments of the poets to a philosophical system. ...
/.../lactantius/the divine institutes/chap xii that the stoics transfer.htm

Probable view of the Stoics, that the Soul Has a Corporeal Nature.
... Chapter V."Probable View of the Stoics, that the Soul Has a Corporeal Nature.
Suppose one summons a Eubulus to his assistance, and ...
/.../tertullian/a treatise on the soul/chapter v probable view of the.htm

The Stoics; their Superiority in Logic; Fatalists; their Doctrine ...
... Chapter XVIII."The Stoics; Their Superiority in Logic; Fatalists; Their Doctrine
of Conflagrations. ... The foregoing are the opinions of the Stoics also. ...
/.../the refutation of all heresies/chapter xviii the stoics their superiority.htm

The Pythagoreans and Stoics, While they Hold the Immortality of ...
... Chap. XVIII."The Pythagoreans and Stoics, While They Hold the Immortality
of the Soul, Foolishly Persuade a Voluntary Death. Others ...
/.../lactantius/the divine institutes/chap xviii the pythagoreans and stoics.htm

The Opinion of the Peripatetics and Stoics About Mental Emotions.
... Book IX. Chapter 4."The Opinion of the Peripatetics and Stoics About Mental
Emotions. Among the philosophers there are two opinions ...
//christianbookshelf.org/augustine/city of god/chapter 4 the opinion of the.htm

Of the Three Perturbations, which the Stoics Admitted in the Soul ...
... Chapter 8."Of the Three Perturbations, Which the Stoics Admitted in the Soul of
the Wise Man to the Exclusion of Grief or Sadness, Which the Manly Mind Ought ...
/.../augustine/city of god/chapter 8 of the three perturbations.htm

Of Nature, and of the World; and a Censure of the Stoics and ...
... Chap. III."Of Nature, and of the World; And a Censure of the Stoics and Epicureans. ...
But the Stoics also say the world was made for the sake of men. I hear. ...
/.../lactantius/the divine institutes/chap iii of nature and of.htm

Concerning the Same Opinion of the Stoics, and Concerning the ...
... Chap. xvii."concerning the same opinion of the stoics, and concerning the
hardships and disgraceful conduct of the gods. On these ...
/.../lactantius/the divine institutes/chap xvii concerning the same opinion.htm

Stoics (1 Occurrence)
... so called from the Greek word stoa ie, a "porch" or "portico," where they have been
called "the Pharisees of Greek paganism." The founder of the Stoics was Zeno ...
/s/stoics.htm - 15k

Logos
... Int. Standard Bible Encyclopedia. LOGOS. log'-os (logos): I. GREEK SPECULATION
1. Heraclitus 2. Anaxagoras 3. Plato 4. Aristotle 5. Stoics II. ...
/l/logos.htm - 38k

Epicureans (1 Occurrence)
... They have been called the "Sadducees" of Greek paganism. They, with the
Stoics, ridiculed the teaching of Paul (Acts 17:18). They ...
/e/epicureans.htm - 20k

Judaeus
... It had been familiar to the rabbis, and to the Hellenistic philosophers, particularly
the Stoics, who applied this method to the Greek poetical myths. ...
/j/judaeus.htm - 29k

Philo
... It had been familiar to the rabbis, and to the Hellenistic philosophers, particularly
the Stoics, who applied this method to the Greek poetical myths. ...
/p/philo.htm - 29k

Stole (9 Occurrences)

/s/stole.htm - 9k

Philosophy (1 Occurrence)
... were being developed with a more directly ethical interest, by the Cyrenaics and
Epicureans, into a system of Hedonism, and, by the Cynics and Stoics, into a ...
/p/philosophy.htm - 27k

Kindness (295 Occurrences)
... 3. Stoic Teaching: This twofold ideal of social morality as universal benevolence
and mutual affection had been foreshadowed by the STOICS (which see). ...
/k/kindness.htm - 45k

Josephus
... PHARISEES). He evidently believed, too, that the Pharisees were akin to the
Stoics, who were then influential in the Hellenistic world. ...
/j/josephus.htm - 13k

Flavius
... PHARISEES). He evidently believed, too, that the Pharisees were akin to the
Stoics, who were then influential in the Hellenistic world. ...
/f/flavius.htm - 13k

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