This is
The phrase "This is" introduces the text as a distinct and significant work. It sets the stage for what follows, indicating that the content is of particular importance. In biblical literature, such introductions often serve to highlight the unique nature of the text, preparing the reader for a work that stands apart from others.

Solomon’s
Solomon, the son of King David and Bathsheba, is traditionally credited as the author of this book. Known for his wisdom, wealth, and extensive writings, Solomon's reign is often seen as a golden age in Israel's history. His authorship suggests a time of peace and prosperity, allowing for the exploration of themes such as love and beauty. Solomon's connection to the temple and his role in building it also provide a backdrop of spiritual significance, as the temple is a type of Christ, symbolizing God's presence among His people.

Song of Songs
The phrase "Song of Songs" is a Hebrew idiom indicating the superlative, meaning this is the greatest of all songs. This title suggests that the content is of the highest quality and importance, much like "Holy of Holies" refers to the most sacred place. The book is a poetic exploration of love, often interpreted as an allegory of Christ's love for the Church. The use of song and poetry reflects the cultural and historical context of ancient Israel, where oral tradition and lyrical expression were central to worship and storytelling. The Song of Songs is unique in its celebration of human love, yet it also points to the divine love between God and His people, a theme echoed throughout Scripture.

Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth!
This opening line of the Song of Solomon is a passionate expression of desire and intimacy. In the context of ancient Hebrew poetry, a kiss symbolizes affection, love, and a deep personal connection. The imagery of a kiss is often used in the Bible to denote a covenant or a significant relationship, as seen in the story of Jacob and Laban (Genesis 29:11). The desire for a kiss here can be seen as a longing for a personal and intimate relationship with God, reflecting the believer's yearning for divine love and closeness. Theologically, this can be interpreted as a type of Christ's love for the Church, where the Church, as the bride, desires the intimate presence and love of Christ, the bridegroom.

For your love is more delightful than wine.
Wine in biblical times was a symbol of joy, celebration, and abundance. It was often used in religious ceremonies and feasts, as seen in the wedding at Cana (John 2:1-11), where Jesus turned water into wine, symbolizing the new covenant and the joy of salvation. The comparison of love to wine suggests that the love being described is rich, intoxicating, and surpasses all earthly pleasures. This can be seen as a metaphor for the spiritual joy and fulfillment found in a relationship with God, which surpasses all worldly delights. The love of God, as experienced through Christ, is portrayed as the ultimate source of joy and satisfaction, echoing the sentiments found in Psalm 63:3, "Because your love is better than life, my lips will glorify you."

The fragrance of your perfume is pleasing;
In ancient Near Eastern culture, perfumes and ointments were highly valued for their aromatic qualities and were often used in social and religious contexts. The mention of fragrance here symbolizes the allure and attractiveness of the beloved. Perfumes were made from various natural ingredients, such as myrrh and frankincense, which were also used in temple worship, suggesting a connection between the beloved's appeal and spiritual devotion. This imagery can be seen as a type of Christ, whose presence is spiritually fragrant and pleasing to believers, as reflected in Ephesians 5:2, where Christ's sacrificial love is described as a "fragrant offering."

your name is like perfume poured out.
In biblical times, a person's name was more than just an identifier; it represented their character and reputation. The comparison of the beloved's name to perfume suggests that their reputation is as pleasing and attractive as a delightful fragrance. This can be connected to the name of Jesus, which is exalted and revered, as seen in Philippians 2:9-10, where every knee bows at His name. The pouring out of perfume also evokes the image of anointing, which in the Old Testament was associated with consecration and blessing, pointing to the anointing of Jesus as the Messiah.

No wonder the maidens adore you.
The admiration of the maidens reflects the communal recognition of the beloved's virtues and attractiveness. In the context of the Song of Solomon, this admiration can be seen as a celebration of love and beauty. Spiritually, it can be interpreted as the collective adoration of the Church for Christ, the Bridegroom. The maidens' adoration parallels the Church's response to Christ's love and sacrifice, as seen in Revelation 19:7, where the Church, as the Bride, rejoices in the marriage of the Lamb. This communal aspect underscores the idea that true love and virtue are recognized and celebrated by others.

Take me away with you—let us hurry!
This phrase reflects a deep longing and urgency in the relationship between the bride and the bridegroom. In the context of the Song of Solomon, this can be seen as an expression of the desire for intimacy and union. The urgency ("let us hurry") suggests a passionate and eager love. Biblically, this can be compared to the believer's longing for a closer relationship with Christ, as seen in Philippians 3:10, where Paul expresses a desire to know Christ more deeply. The imagery of being taken away can also be reminiscent of the Exodus, where God led His people out of Egypt, symbolizing deliverance and a journey towards a promised relationship.

May the king bring me to his chambers.
The reference to "the king" elevates the bridegroom to a royal status, which can be seen as a type of Christ, the King of Kings. The "chambers" symbolize a place of intimacy and privacy, suggesting a deep, personal relationship. Historically, royal chambers were places of privilege and honor, indicating the special status of the bride. This can be paralleled with John 14:2-3, where Jesus speaks of preparing a place for believers, highlighting the intimate and eternal relationship between Christ and His church.

We will rejoice and delight in you;
This phrase emphasizes communal joy and celebration in the presence of the beloved. In the context of the church, this can be seen as the collective worship and adoration of Christ by believers. The joy and delight reflect the fruits of a relationship with God, as seen in Galatians 5:22, where joy is listed as a fruit of the Spirit. The communal aspect ("we") underscores the unity and fellowship among believers, as encouraged in Hebrews 10:24-25.

we will praise your love more than wine.
Wine in biblical times was a symbol of joy, celebration, and abundance. To praise love more than wine suggests that the love of the bridegroom is more fulfilling and satisfying than the greatest earthly pleasures. This can be connected to Ephesians 5:18, where believers are encouraged to be filled with the Spirit rather than wine, indicating the superior joy found in a relationship with Christ. The comparison elevates divine love above all earthly experiences.

It is only right that they adore you.
This final phrase acknowledges the worthiness of the beloved to be adored. In a broader biblical context, it reflects the rightful worship and adoration due to God. Revelation 4:11 echoes this sentiment, declaring the worthiness of God to receive glory and honor. The phrase suggests a natural and appropriate response to the beloved's character and actions, paralleling the believer's response to the love and sacrifice of Christ.

I am dark, yet lovely
This phrase reflects the speaker's self-awareness and confidence in her beauty despite her dark complexion. In the ancient Near Eastern context, a darker skin tone often indicated a life of labor under the sun, possibly suggesting her work in the vineyards (Song of Solomon 1:6). This contrasts with the cultural preference for lighter skin, which was associated with nobility and leisure. Theologically, this can be seen as an affirmation of inherent worth and beauty, regardless of societal standards. It echoes the biblical theme that God values the heart over outward appearance (1 Samuel 16:7).

O daughters of Jerusalem
The "daughters of Jerusalem" are likely a group of women who serve as a chorus or audience within the Song. They represent the societal norms and expectations of the time. Their presence in the text highlights the communal aspect of love and relationships, as well as the societal pressures that can influence personal identity and self-perception. This phrase also connects to the broader biblical narrative of Jerusalem as a central place of worship and community, often symbolizing the people of God (Isaiah 52:9).

like the tents of Kedar
Kedar was a nomadic tribe descended from Ishmael, known for their black tents made from goat hair. These tents were functional and durable, symbolizing strength and resilience. The comparison suggests a beauty that is both practical and enduring, not merely superficial. This imagery can be seen as a metaphor for the believer's life, which is often marked by trials and perseverance, yet remains beautiful in God's eyes (2 Corinthians 4:7-10).

like the curtains of Solomon
The curtains of Solomon likely refer to the luxurious and ornate fabrics used in the royal palaces or the temple. This comparison elevates the speaker's beauty to a level of regal splendor and divine craftsmanship. It suggests a connection to the wisdom and wealth of Solomon, who built the temple as a dwelling place for God (1 Kings 6). This can be seen as a type of Christ, who is the ultimate fulfillment of the temple, embodying God's presence among His people (John 2:19-21).

Do not stare because I am dark
The speaker, traditionally understood as the Shulammite woman, addresses the onlookers who might judge her appearance. In ancient Near Eastern culture, a darker complexion often indicated outdoor labor, which was associated with lower social status. This phrase highlights the societal norms and prejudices of the time, where fair skin was often idealized. Theologically, this can be seen as a reminder that God looks at the heart rather than outward appearances, as seen in 1 Samuel 16:7.

for the sun has gazed upon me
The reference to the sun suggests exposure to the elements, indicating a life of hard work. This aligns with the agrarian society of ancient Israel, where many people worked outdoors. The sun's gaze symbolizes the unavoidable circumstances that have shaped her appearance, much like how life's trials can shape a person's character. This can be connected to the refining process described in Malachi 3:3, where trials purify and strengthen faith.

My mother’s sons were angry with me
This phrase suggests familial conflict, possibly indicating a blended family or step-siblings, which was not uncommon in biblical times. The anger of her brothers may reflect jealousy or a desire to control, reminiscent of Joseph's brothers in Genesis 37. This familial tension can be seen as a type of the rejection Christ faced from His own people, as noted in John 1:11.

they made me a keeper of the vineyards
The vineyards symbolize responsibility and labor imposed upon her by her brothers. Vineyards were significant in Israelite culture, representing both economic livelihood and spiritual fruitfulness, as seen in Isaiah 5:1-7. This imposition of labor can be seen as a metaphor for the burdens others place upon us, contrasting with Jesus' invitation in Matthew 11:28-30 to find rest in Him.

but my own vineyard I have neglected
The neglect of her own vineyard symbolizes the personal sacrifices she has made due to external demands. This can be interpreted as a loss of personal identity or spiritual neglect, a theme echoed in the parable of the ten virgins in Matthew 25:1-13, where preparedness and personal spiritual care are emphasized. Theologically, it serves as a call to prioritize one's relationship with God amidst life's demands, reflecting the greatest commandment to love God with all one's heart, soul, and mind (Matthew 22:37).

Tell me, O one I love,
This phrase reflects the intimate and personal relationship between the speaker and the beloved. In the context of the Song of Solomon, this is often interpreted as an allegory of the love between Christ and the Church. The expression of love and desire for closeness can be seen as a reflection of the believer's longing for communion with Christ. The use of "O one I love" indicates a deep affection and personal connection, which is central to the theme of divine love throughout Scripture.

where do you pasture your sheep?
The imagery of shepherding is prevalent throughout the Bible, symbolizing guidance, provision, and care. In the Old Testament, God is often depicted as a shepherd (e.g., Psalm 23), and in the New Testament, Jesus refers to Himself as the Good Shepherd (John 10:11). This phrase suggests a desire to be near the beloved, to be under his care and guidance, much like sheep are dependent on their shepherd for sustenance and protection.

Where do you rest them at midday?
Midday was a time of rest and reprieve from the harsh sun in the ancient Near East. This request for knowledge of the resting place indicates a desire for peace and refreshment in the presence of the beloved. Spiritually, it can be seen as a longing for the rest and peace found in Christ, who invites the weary to find rest in Him (Matthew 11:28-30). The mention of "midday" also highlights the urgency and intensity of the speaker's desire to be with the beloved.

Why should I be like a veiled woman
In ancient cultures, a veiled woman could signify modesty, but it could also imply being an outsider or someone of questionable reputation. The speaker's concern about being "like a veiled woman" suggests a fear of being misunderstood or marginalized. In a spiritual sense, this can reflect the believer's desire to be recognized and accepted by Christ, not wanting to be seen as distant or unworthy.

beside the flocks of your companions?
This phrase indicates a concern about being separated from the beloved and being among others who are not the primary object of affection. The "flocks of your companions" could symbolize other groups or communities, highlighting the speaker's desire for a unique and personal relationship with the beloved. In a broader biblical context, it can reflect the Church's desire to be distinct and set apart for Christ, not merely one among many. This longing for exclusivity in relationship mirrors the call for the Church to be holy and devoted to Christ alone (Ephesians 5:25-27).

If you do not know, O fairest of women
This phrase addresses the beloved, often interpreted as the Shulammite woman, highlighting her beauty and worth. The term "fairest" suggests a superlative beauty, which can be seen as a reflection of the church's beauty in the eyes of Christ. The rhetorical question "If you do not know" implies a gentle rebuke or guidance, suggesting that the beloved may be seeking direction or assurance. This can be paralleled with the church's need for guidance from Christ, as seen in passages like John 10:27, where Jesus speaks of His sheep hearing His voice.

follow the tracks of the flock
The imagery of following the tracks of the flock suggests a path of righteousness and community. In ancient pastoral societies, following the flock was essential for sustenance and survival. Spiritually, this can be seen as an encouragement to follow the path laid out by the faithful, akin to Hebrews 12:1, which speaks of being surrounded by a great cloud of witnesses. The flock can symbolize the people of God, and following their tracks implies adhering to the teachings and examples of those who have gone before.

and graze your young goats
Grazing young goats indicates care and provision, a common pastoral activity in ancient Israel. This phrase suggests nurturing and responsibility, reflecting the believer's duty to care for those entrusted to them. In a spiritual sense, it can be seen as a call to nurture new believers or those young in faith, similar to Jesus' instruction to Peter in John 21:15-17 to feed His sheep. The act of grazing also implies a peaceful and sustained provision, echoing the pastoral care of God as the Good Shepherd.

near the tents of the shepherds
The mention of tents of the shepherds places the scene in a pastoral setting, common in the ancient Near East. Shepherds were vital to the economy and culture, and their tents would be places of safety and community. Spiritually, this can be seen as an invitation to remain close to spiritual leaders and the community of faith. The shepherds' tents symbolize guidance and protection, akin to the church's role in providing spiritual oversight and fellowship. This imagery aligns with Psalm 23, where the Lord is depicted as a shepherd providing for and protecting His flock.

I compare you, my darling
This phrase reflects the intimate and affectionate language typical of the Song of Solomon, a poetic book celebrating love and marriage. The term "my darling" indicates a deep personal connection and endearment. In the context of ancient Hebrew culture, such expressions of love were often reserved for the closest of relationships, highlighting the exclusivity and commitment inherent in marriage. This phrase can also be seen as a reflection of God's love for His people, as marriage is often used as a metaphor for the relationship between God and Israel, and later, Christ and the Church (Ephesians 5:25-32).

to a mare among Pharaoh’s chariots
The comparison to a mare among Pharaoh's chariots is rich with cultural and historical significance. In ancient Egypt, Pharaoh's chariots were symbols of power, prestige, and military might. Horses, especially those associated with Pharaoh, were highly valued and considered majestic. A mare among these chariots would stand out as unique and captivating, suggesting that the beloved is unparalleled in beauty and grace. This imagery also evokes the idea of strength and nobility, as horses were essential to the success of chariots in battle. Theologically, this can be seen as a type of Christ, who is both the beloved of God and the one who stands out in majesty and power. Additionally, the mare's presence among the chariots could symbolize the transformative power of love, which elevates and dignifies.

Your cheeks are beautiful with ornaments
In the context of ancient Near Eastern culture, beauty was often accentuated with jewelry and adornments. The mention of "cheeks" being beautiful with ornaments suggests a sense of dignity and honor. In biblical times, women often wore jewelry to signify status and beauty, as seen in Genesis 24:22, where Rebekah receives a gold nose ring and bracelets. The cheeks, a prominent feature of the face, symbolize the visible expression of inner beauty and joy. This imagery can also be seen as a metaphor for the beauty of the bride of Christ, the Church, adorned with the righteousness and grace given by God (Ephesians 5:27).

your neck with strings of jewels
The neck adorned with jewels signifies grace and elegance. In ancient cultures, necklaces were not only decorative but also indicative of wealth and social standing. The reference to "strings of jewels" suggests a lavish and intentional display of beauty. Proverbs 1:9 speaks of wisdom and instruction as a "graceful garland for your head and pendants for your neck," indicating that spiritual adornment is of great value. This can be seen as a type of the believer's spiritual adornment in Christ, who is our wisdom and righteousness (1 Corinthians 1:30). The imagery of the neck adorned with jewels also points to the Church, which is made beautiful and precious through the redemptive work of Christ.

We will make you ornaments of gold
The use of "we" suggests a collective effort, possibly referring to the daughters of Jerusalem or the royal court, indicating a communal celebration of beauty and love. Gold, a precious metal, symbolizes value, purity, and royalty, often associated with divine attributes and the glory of God. In biblical times, gold was used in the construction of the Tabernacle and the Temple, signifying holiness and divine presence (Exodus 25:11; 1 Kings 6:20-22). The mention of gold here may also allude to the bride's worth and the honor bestowed upon her, reflecting the church's value in the eyes of Christ (Ephesians 5:25-27).

studded with beads of silver
Silver, another precious metal, often represents redemption and purity in Scripture. It was used in the tabernacle's construction and in various offerings (Exodus 26:19; Leviticus 5:15). The combination of gold and silver in the ornaments suggests a harmonious blend of beauty and redemption, pointing to the multifaceted nature of love and the relationship between Christ and the church. The imagery of adornment with precious metals can be seen as a type of the believer's spiritual adornment, as described in 1 Peter 3:3-4, where inner beauty is valued over outward appearance. The intricate design of these ornaments reflects the care and intentionality in God's relationship with His people, emphasizing the beauty and worth of the bride, both in the immediate context and as a type of the church.

While the king was at his table
This phrase sets the scene in a royal context, indicating a setting of opulence and authority. The "king" here is often interpreted as Solomon, known for his wisdom and wealth. The table signifies a place of fellowship and intimacy, possibly during a banquet or feast. In ancient Near Eastern culture, dining with someone was a sign of close relationship and trust. This setting can also be seen as a type of Christ, who invites believers to His table, symbolizing communion and fellowship with Him (Revelation 3:20).

my perfume spread its fragrance
Perfume in biblical times was a luxury item, often made from costly spices and oils. The spreading of fragrance symbolizes the influence and presence of the beloved. In a spiritual sense, this can be seen as the believer's life being a pleasing aroma to God, as referenced in 2 Corinthians 2:15, where believers are described as the fragrance of Christ. The act of spreading fragrance can also be seen as an act of worship, similar to Mary anointing Jesus with costly perfume in John 12:3, symbolizing devotion and love.

My beloved is to me
This phrase expresses deep affection and personal connection. In the context of the Song of Solomon, it reflects the intimate relationship between the Shulammite woman and her beloved, often interpreted as King Solomon. This relationship can be seen as a representation of the love between Christ and the Church, drawing parallels to Ephesians 5:25-27, where Christ's love for the Church is described as sacrificial and pure.

a sachet of myrrh
Myrrh is a fragrant resin used in ancient times for perfume, anointing oil, and embalming. It was a valuable commodity, symbolizing wealth and luxury. In biblical times, myrrh was also one of the gifts brought by the Magi to Jesus (Matthew 2:11), symbolizing His future suffering and death. The use of myrrh here suggests something precious and cherished, indicating the beloved's value and significance to the speaker.

resting between my breasts
This imagery conveys intimacy and closeness, suggesting a deep personal bond. In the cultural context of the ancient Near East, such expressions of affection were common in romantic poetry. The placement of the sachet of myrrh "between my breasts" indicates a cherished and constant presence, akin to the indwelling of Christ in the believer's heart, as seen in Galatians 2:20, where Paul speaks of Christ living in him. This phrase also highlights the personal and internalized nature of the relationship, emphasizing the beloved's continual presence and influence in the speaker's life.

My beloved is to me
This phrase expresses deep affection and personal connection. The term "beloved" is a recurring theme in the Song of Solomon, symbolizing the intimate relationship between the lovers. In a broader biblical context, it can be seen as a representation of the love between Christ and the Church, as the Church is often referred to as the Bride of Christ (Ephesians 5:25-27). The personal nature of "to me" emphasizes the unique and cherished relationship, highlighting the exclusivity and devotion found in a covenant relationship.

a cluster of henna blossoms
Henna blossoms, known for their fragrant and beautiful flowers, were highly valued in ancient times. Henna (Lawsonia inermis) was used for its dye and perfume, symbolizing beauty and delight. The imagery of a "cluster" suggests abundance and richness, indicating that the beloved is a source of joy and pleasure. In the cultural context, henna was often used in wedding ceremonies, symbolizing love and commitment. This imagery can also be seen as a type of Christ, who is the source of spiritual beauty and joy for believers.

in the vineyards of En-gedi.
En-gedi is an oasis located near the Dead Sea, known for its lush vegetation and water sources in an otherwise arid region. It was a place of refuge and beauty, often associated with fertility and life. The vineyards of En-gedi would have been a place of abundance and refreshment, enhancing the imagery of the beloved as a source of life and sustenance. Historically, En-gedi was a strategic location, providing shelter and resources, as seen in the life of David when he fled from Saul (1 Samuel 23:29). The mention of En-gedi underscores the idea of the beloved as a place of refuge and delight, much like Christ provides spiritual refuge and sustenance to His followers.

How beautiful you are, my darling!
This phrase reflects the admiration and affection of the speaker, often interpreted as Solomon, towards his beloved. The use of "beautiful" emphasizes the physical and inner beauty of the beloved, which is a recurring theme in the Song of Solomon. In the context of ancient Israel, beauty was often associated with divine favor and blessing. The term "darling" indicates a deep, personal relationship, suggesting intimacy and exclusivity. This can be seen as a reflection of God's love for His people, as depicted in other scriptures such as Isaiah 62:5, where God rejoices over His people as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride.

Oh, how very beautiful!
The repetition of the declaration of beauty serves to intensify the speaker's admiration and to emphasize the beloved's worth. In Hebrew poetry, repetition is a common device used to express strong emotion and importance. This mirrors the biblical theme of God's repeated affirmations of love and value towards His people, as seen in passages like Zephaniah 3:17, where God delights in His people with singing.

Your eyes are like doves.
The comparison of eyes to doves suggests purity, gentleness, and peace. Doves are often symbols of the Holy Spirit and peace in the Bible, as seen in the account of Jesus' baptism in Matthew 3:16, where the Spirit descends like a dove. This imagery may also imply a sense of innocence and tranquility in the beloved's gaze. In the cultural context of the time, eyes were considered windows to the soul, and such a comparison would indicate a deep, soulful connection between the lovers. This can also be seen as a type of Christ's pure and peaceful nature, inviting believers to reflect His character in their own lives.

How handsome you are, my beloved!
This phrase reflects the admiration and affection the Shulammite woman has for her beloved, often interpreted as Solomon. In the context of ancient Near Eastern poetry, physical beauty was frequently celebrated as a reflection of inner qualities. The term "handsome" here not only refers to physical appearance but also to the character and virtues of the beloved. This admiration can be seen as a type of the believer's love for Christ, who is described as "altogether lovely" in Song of Solomon 5:16. The use of "my beloved" indicates a deep, personal relationship, echoing the intimate relationship between Christ and the Church.

Oh, how delightful!
The expression of delight suggests a sense of joy and satisfaction in the presence of the beloved. In biblical terms, delight often signifies a deep, spiritual joy that transcends mere physical attraction. This can be connected to Psalm 37:4, which speaks of delighting in the Lord. The delight here can be seen as a reflection of the joy found in a relationship with God, where the believer finds ultimate satisfaction and fulfillment.

The soft grass is our bed.
This imagery of a natural setting for their union suggests simplicity and purity, contrasting with the opulence often associated with Solomon's reign. The pastoral setting evokes the Garden of Eden, symbolizing innocence and unspoiled beauty. It also reflects the biblical theme of rest and peace found in God's creation, as seen in Psalm 23:2, "He makes me lie down in green pastures." The use of "our bed" indicates mutual belonging and shared intimacy, paralleling the unity between Christ and His Church. The natural setting may also symbolize the believer's rest in Christ, who provides spiritual rest and peace.

The beams of our house are cedars;
Cedars were highly valued in ancient Israel for their durability, resistance to decay, and pleasant aroma. The use of cedar wood in construction is a symbol of strength and permanence. In biblical times, cedar was often imported from Lebanon, as it was considered the finest wood available. This phrase may evoke the grandeur of Solomon's Temple, which was built using cedar wood (1 Kings 6:9-10). The mention of "our house" suggests a shared dwelling, symbolizing unity and stability in the relationship. The cedar beams can also be seen as a metaphor for the strength and enduring nature of love, reflecting the divine love that is unchanging and eternal.

our rafters are fragrant firs.
Firs, like cedars, were also used in construction and were known for their pleasant scent. The fragrance of the firs adds an element of beauty and delight to the home, suggesting that the relationship is not only strong but also filled with joy and pleasure. In the context of the Song of Solomon, which celebrates romantic love, the fragrant firs can symbolize the refreshing and life-giving aspects of love. The use of natural imagery highlights the connection between creation and the Creator, pointing to the beauty and order God has established in relationships. The mention of "fragrant" may also allude to the pleasing aroma of a life lived in accordance with God's will, as seen in other scriptures where fragrance is associated with worship and sacrifice (2 Corinthians 2:15).