Chs. 11–15. THE LAWS OF PURIFICATION

These laws suitably follow chs. 8–10 which record the consecration of the priests. As sacrifice was the principal element in that consecration, the laws of sacrifice (chs. 1–7) appropriately precede the account of the inauguration of the worship in chs. 8–10.

One of the chief duties of the priests was ‘to put difference between the holy and the common, and between the unclean and the clean’ (Leviticus 10:10); instructions for putting this difference appropriately follow the account in chs. 8–10.

These laws may be divided into two groups:

(1) those in ch. 11, which relate to food and contact with the carcases of animals;

(2) those in chs. 12–15, concerning the uncleanness of persons, garments, furniture, and houses.

Ch. Leviticus 11:1-23 [51]. The Distinction between Clean and Unclean Food

[51] For the sources from which this ch. comes, and its relation from a critical point of view to Deuteronomy 14:3 ff. see App. I (c), pp. 162 f.

One principle underlying this distinction appears to have been that animals which were recognised as in any way objects of worship by heathen neighbours, or even supposed by them to be connected with unseen supernatural beings, were to be considered unclean. See Bertholet in KHC., introd. note to this ch. But in other cases the prohibition probably rested on the animal’s repulsive appearance or uncleanly habits, or on sanitary or totemistic grounds. See Driver, Deut. p. 164, and Rob.-Sm. OTJC.2 p. 366.

A list of animals which may and may not be eaten is given in Deuteronomy 14:3-20; it has close verbal affinity with Leviticus 11:2-21 of this ch. The two passages are placed side by side in Driver (ICC.) Deut. P. 157 f.

Both lists are divided into classes:

(a) Beasts Leviticus 11:2-8. Cp. Deuteronomy 14:3-8Deut. enumerates three domestic, and seven wild animals, as clean beasts which may be eaten. Lev. does not mention the clean beasts, but both give their two distinguishing marks—‘Whatsoever parteth the hoof … and cheweth the cud,’ and specify the same four beasts which have not both of these marks as unclean. Lev. is more diffuse, but employs the same expressions as Deut.

(b) Fishes Leviticus 11:9-12. Cp. Deuteronomy 14:9-10The same criterion of cleanness, having ‘scales and fins,’ is given both in Lev. and Deut., but Lev. is more diffuse, and introduces a word (Heb. shéḳeẓ) detestation, used frequently in this ch., also in Leviticus 7:21, and Isaiah 66:17; Ezekiel 8:10. Another and commoner form (shiḳḳuẓ) occurs in Deuteronomy 29:16. No fish is mentioned by name, and the distinction between clean and unclean fishes in particular cases was determined by the Jewish rabbis.

(c) Birds Leviticus 11:13-19. Cp. Deuteronomy 14:11-18Deut. begins with ‘Of all clean birds ye may eat’ (Leviticus 11:11), but does not give a list like that of clean beasts. The forbidden birds are almost identical in both.

(d) Winged swarming things Leviticus 11:20-23. Cp. Deuteronomy 14:19-20Lev. adds ‘that go upon all four’ (Leviticus 11:20), and in Leviticus 11:21-22 gives a list of winged swarming things that may be eaten (those that ‘leap’), repeating in Leviticus 11:23 the prohibition of Leviticus 11:20. Deut. concludes the list with ‘of all clean fowls (the same Heb. word as for ‘winged things’) ye may eat’ (Leviticus 14:20), but gives no list.

4. The camel’s hoof is parted above but the lower part is not divided. The Egyptians did not eat the flesh of the camel, but both the flesh and the milk are considered as lawful food by the Arabs.

5. the coney] The exact equivalent of the Heb. shâphân is given in R.V. mg. In Psalm 104:18; Proverbs 30:26 it is described as a weak and timid animal, taking refuge in the rocks, and Tristram (Land of Israel, p. 250) remarks that it is difficult to capture. ‘Coney,’ an old English term for ‘rabbit,’ is the rendering of A.V., which follows the traditional Jewish interpretation. As ‘coney’ is no longer in use, it has been retained in R.V., on the principle of avoiding all unnecessary alteration, but with the exact rendering in the margin. This is one of many instances where the rendering of R.V. mg. is essential for the full understanding of that version.

The coney (rock-badger) and hare move their jaws like beasts which chew the cud, but are not ruminating animals. Here, as in other passages of the Bible, the language is popular, rather than scientific.

7. The flesh of the pig is forbidden because it is not a ruminant. Of the four animals here mentioned, the swine was specially obnoxious to the Jews, either owing to its being an object of heathen worship (cp. Isaiah 65:4; Isaiah 66:3; Isaiah 66:17), or for sanitary reasons. To eat pork was by them regarded as abjuring their religion, and it is recorded as one of the abominations that were forced upon the Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes in the Maccabaean persecution, 2Ma 6:18-19.

8. their carcases ye shall not touch] The word carcase is the same as that translated ‘that which dieth of itself’ (Leviticus 17:15; Deuteronomy 14:21). Here and in Deuteronomy 14:8 contact with the dead bodies of these unclean animals is prohibited.

13. the eagle] Heb. nésher, great vulture R.V. mg. The nésher is described (Micah 1:16) as bald, as spying for prey on the peaks of the rocks, and as swooping down upon the slain (Habakkuk 1:8; Job 39:27-30). The griffon, of the vulture family, is denoted by this Heb. word. The eagle cannot be described as bald, having feathers on the head and neck, but the griffon has only down.

the gier eagle] Heb. péreṣ, the ‘breaker’ or ‘cleaver’: the bearded vulture, Gypaetus barbatus, which breaks the bones of animals in order to obtain the marrow. Hence the name ‘ossifrage’ (bone breaker) in A.V. Geire (cp. the German Geier) was an old English word for vulture.

the ospray] The fishing hawk or another species of eagle. There are seven different kinds of eagle in Palestine.

14. the kite] vulture A.V. The Heb. word dâ’âh occurs only here as the name of a bird, but a similar word dayyâh is found in Deuteronomy 14:13 and Isaiah 34:15 (kite[s] R.V., vulture[s] A.V.) only. The Heb. words in Lev. and Deut. are

Lev. dâ’âh (kite) ’ayyah (falcon),

Deut. râ’âh (glede) ’ayyah (falcon) dayyah (kite).

râ’âh is doubtless a copyist’s error for dâ’âh (it has been translated in R.V. and A.V. ‘glede,’ an old English word for ‘kite’), and dayyah may have been added instead of the omitted dâ’âh.

the falcon] kite A.V. The word occurs here, in Deuteronomy 14:13 and Job 28:7 (vulture A.V.) only.

The expression ‘after his kind’ following, implies that several varieties of this bird were known. The Heb. ’ayyah may be derived from the bird’s cry which is rendered in Arabic as yâ yâ.

16. ostrich] Here and in Deuteronomy 14:15; Job 30:29; Isaiah 13:21; Isaiah 34:13; Isaiah 43:20; Jeremiah 50:39; Micah 1:8 the rendering ‘owl’ of A.V. should be corrected to ‘ostrich.’

the night hawk] The meaning of the Heb. taḥmâṣ is very uncertain. The root seems to indicate a bird of aggressive and violent character.

the seamew] cuckow A.V. So LXX. and Vulg.

the hawk after its kind] Many varieties of the hawk are indicated. The Heb. word nçẓ occurs here, in Deuteronomy 14:15 and Job 39:26 only.

17. the little owl] Heb. kôṣ in the two texts and in Psalm 102:7 only. A bird screeching by night is indicated by the LXX. and Vulg.

the cormorant] The position of this word in Deut. is more suitable than here. The Heb. word shâlâk implies plunging downwards with force and the Targ. translates it ‘a bird that catches fishes.’

the great owl] In the two texts and Isaiah 34:11 (‘owl,’ R. and A.V., ‘bittern’ R.V. mg.) the LXX. translate ‘ibis.’ Some species of owl is indicated.

18. the horned owl] (swan A.V. and R.V. mg.) another kind of owl. The Heb. root (also used in Leviticus 11:30 for the chameleon [mole A.V.]) suggests a bird that makes a snorting sound, or breathes hard. The LXX. trans. πορφυρίων. Tristram (Nat. Hist. of the Bible, p. 249) and Driver (Deut. in loc.) ‘the water hen.’

the pelican] In the lists and Psalm 102:6 [Hebrews 7] (‘a pelican of the wilderness’); Isaiah 34:11; Zephaniah 2:14 (cormorant A. V.) it is used of a bird inhabiting desolate places.

the vulture] (the gier-eagle A.V.) It is distinguished by zoologists as vultur percnopterus.

The cormorant follows in Deut. at the close of Leviticus 14:17.

19. the stork] In the two lists, and Psalm 104:17 (‘the fir trees are her house’); Jeremiah 8:7 (‘knoweth her appointed times,’ i.e. of migration), Zechariah 5:9†. The Heb. word means ‘pious’ or ‘merciful’ (referring to her tenderness towards her young). In the difficult passage, Job 39:13, either the stork is mentioned, or there is a play upon words with reference to her name, and a contrast between her and the ostrich seems indicated. See R.V. mg. and A.V. mg.

the heron] Many kinds of heron are found both in Egypt and Palestine. The ibis R.V. mg. was a sacred bird to the Egyptians, and one variety of heron found in great numbers round Lake Huleh is called the white ibis.

the hoopoe] (lapwing A.V.) The traditional interpretation of this strange Heb. word dûkîphath from LXX. and Vulg. onwards is fixed. Some consider it to be derived from the cry of the bird, like that of the cuckoo. Cheyne thinks it is derived by transposition of letters from ḳippôd, the ‘porcupine’ or bittern, Isaiah 14:23; Isaiah 34:11; Zephaniah 2:14.

the bat] In both lists and Isaiah 2:20 (there in plur.) †. The derivation of the Heb. word is uncertain, but its meaning is not questioned.

20. All winged swarming things] The same words as in Deuteronomy 14:19; swarming creatures which also fly, i.e. flying insects. A.V. obscures for the English reader the identity of expression by rendering here ‘all fowls that creep,’ and in Deuteronomy 14:19 ‘every creeping thing that flieth.’ In Deut. these things are all classed as unclean and not to be eaten. They are here further described as those ‘that go upon all four.’ All these swarming things have six feet, but the text describes their action as it appears to an ordinary observer, and, as in Leviticus 11:5-6, the language is popular, rather than scientific.

20–23. The connexion between these vv. and Leviticus 11:41 is very close, and Leviticus 11:24-30 are generally regarded as supplementary. See pp. 162 f.

21–23. Four kinds of these swarming things which may be eaten are mentioned. The first and last of these occur frequently in the O.T., the second and third only here.

The first is ’arbeh, the general term for a locust, and from the passages in which it occurs (e.g. Exodus 10:4, of the plague of locusts, Jdg 6:5; Jdg 7:12, of invading troops) is clearly a highly destructive insect.

The fourth, ḥâgâb, is translated ‘grasshopper’ except in 2 Chronicles 7:13, where both R.V. and A.V. render ‘locust.’ From the words which follow, ‘to devour the land,’ it is clear the grasshopper is not meant, but one of the locust family. The rendering ‘beetle’ of A.V. for the third is certainly wrong. The Heb. word probably means a galloper, and the characteristic of the four kinds is that they ‘have legs … to leap withal.’

That they were actually eaten appears from Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6.

24–28. Uncleanness caused by Dead Bodies

(See introductory note on Leviticus 11:20-23.)

Leviticus 11:24-25 are a general introduction. ‘And by these’ (Leviticus 11:24) refers to what follows, not to the ‘winged creeping things’ of Leviticus 11:23.

(a) touching or bearing the carcase of (α) beasts specified in Leviticus 11:26-27 or (β) swarming things specified in Leviticus 11:29-30 caused uncleanness till the even; if they were carried, the clothes must also be washed.

(b) further cases of defilement were caused by a carcase, (α) a vessel (Leviticus 11:32-33), (β) food (Leviticus 11:34), (γ) ovens, etc. (Leviticus 11:35), (δ) water in a pit (Leviticus 11:36), (ε) seed (Leviticus 11:37-38).

Carrying part of the carcase involves uncleanness of a higher degree than that caused by mere contact. Note the difference in the regulations of Leviticus 11:24-25; Leviticus 11:27-28.

In Leviticus 11:26-27 the beasts are specified by their characteristics; in Leviticus 11:29-30 by their names.

27. goeth upon its paws] animals like the dog and cat whose feet are hand-like in form, having digits and claws.

29–38. Uncleanness caused by Creeping Things

29. the weasel†] According to early Versions, and the Mishna the Heb. word should be thus translated; but some prefer the rendering ‘mole.’

the great lizard†] tortoise A.V. The cognate words in Arab. and Syr. support the rendering of R.V.

30. For the four words which follow see R.V. mg. They occur only in this verse.

chameleon] mole A.V. following the versions. The same Heb. word is translated horned owl in Leviticus 11:18.

It seems strange that so many kinds of lizards are mentioned; also that the same Heb. word should have two such different meanings in the same chapter.

31. creep] swarm.

32. The case of one of these small animals creeping into a pan or bag or garment, and being found dead, seems to be contemplated. In such a case the vessel is unclean for the rest of the day and (Leviticus 11:33) if earthen must be broken, cp. Leviticus 6:28.

34. Any food mixed with or put in water (for cooking or eating) and any drink into or upon which one of these swarming things has fallen is unclean.

35. If the carcase of any swarming thing come in contact with an oven, of small cooking stove, the vessel becomes unclean and must be broken.

The Heb word kîraim† probably means a small cooking stove. LXX. translate ‘pots with feet.’ The dual form is used either because the vessel consisted of two parts, or because two portions could be prepared in it; somewhat like a modern egg-boiler for two.

36. The continuous renewal of water in a well renders the uncleanness inappreciable, but he who takes out the carcase is rendered unclean by touching it. The case of the pit or cistern is not clear. It might be so large that the effect of a small swarming thing could be neglected, or the water might be replenished by rain.

37, 38. For the seed which is to be sown, contact with swarming things may be disregarded; but if water be added (i.e. if it is put with water in a vessel for cooking), uncleanness will ensue.

A special case comes in Leviticus 11:39-40.

39. The carcase even of a clean beast causes uncleanness.

40. Eating the carcase is forbidden as in Deuteronomy 14:21. According to Leviticus 17:15, the eater must also bathe himself. LXX. supply this command here.

41. creeping thing that creepeth] swarming thing that swarmeth, and so in Leviticus 11:42-44 except the last part of Leviticus 11:44 ‘that moveth (creepeth A.V.) upon the earth.’

43–45 may be an excerpt from H (see Introd. p. xix, The Law of Purification). In fact, Horst and Kuenen (and Dillm. partially) would include in H a large part of this ch.

41–44. This would come appropriately as a conclusion to the rules about eating, after Leviticus 11:23. Cp. Ezekiel 8:10 f.

45. The reason for these prescriptions is given; it is the same as in H.

46. creepeth] swarmeth.

46, 47. Summary. It refers only to the rules about eating, and so makes no reference to Leviticus 11:24-30. See App. I (c).